Analyzing cutting-edge discoveries expanding the understanding of reality.
Analyzing cutting-edge discoveries expanding the understanding of reality.
Here is a list of scientific works that were reviewed in the process of writing the book Realitology for Parents.
The list is continuously updated and expanded.
Stay tuned.
The list is continuously updated and expanded.
Stay tuned.
1. The Beginning
Later, René Descartes posed the question: How can we be certain that physical objects exist if we do not perceive them directly? Although we experience the world through our senses, how closely do these sensory impressions, created by our brain, match the actual physical world? (Yalçin, 2002).
In 1955, shortly before his death, Einstein wrote: “It is basic for all physics that one assumes a real world existing independently from any act of perception. But this we do not know” (Einstein, 1955).
Myths and Misconceptions
List of common myths that many people believe to be true (Meinz et al., 2022).
In 2012, biotech company Amgen studied 53 major biotech papers and found that only 1 in 10 could be replicated. A similarly dismal picture appears in cancer research (Wilson, 2022).
For years, we believed that nerve cells do not regenerate. But recent techniques have shown the birth of new neurons in the brains of mice, pigs, and macaques—though, notably, not in humans (Nano & Bhaduri, 2022).
Story about David Rosenhan: (Rosenhan, 1973). American journalist Suzanne Cahalan suggested the entire experiment was fabricated (Cahalan, 2019).
Lie detectors have been debunked as reliable tools for detecting lies (Brennen & Magnussen, 2023).
Similarly, profiling—the method often used to predict criminal behavior—has been found to have no operational value (Jackson et al., 2011).
About Stanford Prison Experiment: (Le Texier, 2019).
The Implicit Association Test: (Jussim, 2020).
About priming and Daniel Kahneman’s best-selling book Thinking, Fast and Slow: (Chivers, 2019).
Story about Marshmallow Test: (Watts et al., 2018).
About Dunning-Kruger effect: (Gaze, 2023).
About Hans Eysenck and Hans Selye: (Spiegel, 2014).
bout Amy Cuddy’s popular theory about “power poses: (Simmons & Simonsohn, 2017).
Later, René Descartes posed the question: How can we be certain that physical objects exist if we do not perceive them directly? Although we experience the world through our senses, how closely do these sensory impressions, created by our brain, match the actual physical world? (Yalçin, 2002).
In 1955, shortly before his death, Einstein wrote: “It is basic for all physics that one assumes a real world existing independently from any act of perception. But this we do not know” (Einstein, 1955).
Myths and Misconceptions
List of common myths that many people believe to be true (Meinz et al., 2022).
In 2012, biotech company Amgen studied 53 major biotech papers and found that only 1 in 10 could be replicated. A similarly dismal picture appears in cancer research (Wilson, 2022).
For years, we believed that nerve cells do not regenerate. But recent techniques have shown the birth of new neurons in the brains of mice, pigs, and macaques—though, notably, not in humans (Nano & Bhaduri, 2022).
Story about David Rosenhan: (Rosenhan, 1973). American journalist Suzanne Cahalan suggested the entire experiment was fabricated (Cahalan, 2019).
Lie detectors have been debunked as reliable tools for detecting lies (Brennen & Magnussen, 2023).
Similarly, profiling—the method often used to predict criminal behavior—has been found to have no operational value (Jackson et al., 2011).
About Stanford Prison Experiment: (Le Texier, 2019).
The Implicit Association Test: (Jussim, 2020).
About priming and Daniel Kahneman’s best-selling book Thinking, Fast and Slow: (Chivers, 2019).
Story about Marshmallow Test: (Watts et al., 2018).
About Dunning-Kruger effect: (Gaze, 2023).
About Hans Eysenck and Hans Selye: (Spiegel, 2014).
bout Amy Cuddy’s popular theory about “power poses: (Simmons & Simonsohn, 2017).
2. The Creation of Reality
Citation of Fuller: (Fuller, 1979).
Recently, Massimiliano Proietti from Heriot-Watt University in Edinburgh and his colleagues conducted this experiment in practice: they created different realities and compared them, concluding that Wigner was correct (Proietti et al., 2019).
This experiment was replicated: Časlav Brukner of the University of Vienna and colleagues also created two realities, each characterized by irreconcilable facts that nevertheless exist simultaneously (Emerging Technology, 2019).
"The scientific method relies on facts established through repeated measurements and agreed upon universally, independently of who observed them" (Proietti et al., 2019).
Multiple Realities
Where do “we” end and the “others” begin, especially now that we know some of these bacteria communicate directly with the brain? (Looi, 2020; Matthews, 2020).
If this vastness isn’t enough, string theory proposes 10^500 possible states—an unimaginably large number (Clark, 2020).
This is a realm of models and abstract concepts (Humphreys, 2004).
The User Interface
Donald Hoffman, a cognitive scientist and professor at the University of California, Irvine, believes that mathematics should and can solve the mysteries of brain science (Hoffman, 2019).
Five key cognitive features of human functioning (Pinker, 2005).
Surprisingly, the simulated entities that did not perceive reality accurately exhibited the highest survival rates (Hoffman, 2019).
To illustrate this concept, Hoffman, in a conversation with publicist and neuroscientist Sam Harris, likened reality to a simulated environment (Harris, 2019).
Philosopher David Chalmers counters Hoffman’s theory, suggesting that while we may not fully perceive reality, our structural perception is sufficiently close to be scientifically supported, making Hoffman’s claims less convincing (Brockman, 2017).
The Brain as a Prediction Machine
Citation by Chris Frith: (Frith, 2007).
Lisa Feldman Barrett, professor of psychology at Northeastern University, describes the brain as a "budgeting organ" in her book Seven and a Half Lessons About the Brain (Barrett, 2020).
The famous experiments by Pavlov with conditioned reflexes offer a new perspective: the dog's brain was not just reacting to stimuli but predicting that food was coming. Therefore, Pavlov's work further reinforces the concept of the brain as a predictive, budgeting organ.
Citation of Fuller: (Fuller, 1979).
Recently, Massimiliano Proietti from Heriot-Watt University in Edinburgh and his colleagues conducted this experiment in practice: they created different realities and compared them, concluding that Wigner was correct (Proietti et al., 2019).
This experiment was replicated: Časlav Brukner of the University of Vienna and colleagues also created two realities, each characterized by irreconcilable facts that nevertheless exist simultaneously (Emerging Technology, 2019).
"The scientific method relies on facts established through repeated measurements and agreed upon universally, independently of who observed them" (Proietti et al., 2019).
Multiple Realities
Where do “we” end and the “others” begin, especially now that we know some of these bacteria communicate directly with the brain? (Looi, 2020; Matthews, 2020).
If this vastness isn’t enough, string theory proposes 10^500 possible states—an unimaginably large number (Clark, 2020).
This is a realm of models and abstract concepts (Humphreys, 2004).
The User Interface
Donald Hoffman, a cognitive scientist and professor at the University of California, Irvine, believes that mathematics should and can solve the mysteries of brain science (Hoffman, 2019).
Five key cognitive features of human functioning (Pinker, 2005).
Surprisingly, the simulated entities that did not perceive reality accurately exhibited the highest survival rates (Hoffman, 2019).
To illustrate this concept, Hoffman, in a conversation with publicist and neuroscientist Sam Harris, likened reality to a simulated environment (Harris, 2019).
Philosopher David Chalmers counters Hoffman’s theory, suggesting that while we may not fully perceive reality, our structural perception is sufficiently close to be scientifically supported, making Hoffman’s claims less convincing (Brockman, 2017).
The Brain as a Prediction Machine
Citation by Chris Frith: (Frith, 2007).
Lisa Feldman Barrett, professor of psychology at Northeastern University, describes the brain as a "budgeting organ" in her book Seven and a Half Lessons About the Brain (Barrett, 2020).
The famous experiments by Pavlov with conditioned reflexes offer a new perspective: the dog's brain was not just reacting to stimuli but predicting that food was coming. Therefore, Pavlov's work further reinforces the concept of the brain as a predictive, budgeting organ.
3. Peculiarities of Perception
Sheckley’s citation: (Sheckley, 1966). The passage for his book is shortened and edited.
The key to understanding this lies in research on interoception—the perception of internal sensations, such as heartbeat, breathing rate, and feelings of hunger (Sutton, 2018).
It turned out that the illusion worked better for those whose heartbeat evoked potential was more pronounced (Spinney, 2020).
Blanke noted that signals from the heart are very predictable, and therefore, they may contribute to the sense of consciousness, which is usually attributed solely to the brain (Park et al., 2020).
In a series of experiments (Belli et al., 2021), scientists investigated how breathing affects cognitive functions.
This steady rhythm sends signals from the stomach to the brain every 20 seconds, and from the duodenum every 6 seconds (Azzalini, Rebollo, & Tallon-Baudry, 2019).
Story about the construction worker: (Margee, 2021).
However, if you think about a friend, the hill will appear less steep (Proffitt & Baer, 2020).
People who are more attuned to their internal signals may experience a different perception of the path ahead (Magnon et al., 2023).
In darts: those who hit the target perceived the dartboard as larger than those who missed (Wesp et al., 2004).
In American football: (Witt & Dorsch, 2009).
Softball was perceived by players depending on their skill and luck: (Witt & Proffitt, 2005).
Baseball players: (Witt et al., 2008).
Bottle of water: (Ross, 2010).
Story about judges: the decision about their fate—depends on the judge’s blood sugar level (Danziger, Levav, & Avnaim-Pesso, 2011).
It is worth noting that researchers attempting to replicate these findings believe the results may have been exaggerated (Glöckner, 2016).
Striptease dancers: (Miller, Tybur, & Jordan, 2007).
Waitresses with makeup also receive more tips (Jacob et al., 2010).
Testosterone
Man is willing to spend more money on something he wasn’t interested in just a minute earlier (Kenrick, Griskevicius, & Mahmoud, 2016).
The Testosterone Paradox
The more testosterone a man has, the less successful he is likely to be as a husband and father. He is more likely to exhibit antisocial behavior, cheat, and be violent toward his spouse (Booth & Dabbs Jr, 1993).
This is supported by evidence: in many cultures, women prefer such men, especially in countries where infectious diseases are prevalent (Shah, 2016).
The stronger their subconscious fear of infection, the more they were attracted to men with high testosterone levels (Little et al., 2011).
Even today, nearly half of deaths in people under 45 are due to infectious diseases (Shah, 2016).
Discounting the Future
Stress significantly influences our perception. It impairs memory, reducing the capacity to envision the future, and leads individuals to seek immediate rewards (Worthy, Byrne, & Fields, 2014).
Beyond stress, men also exhibit future discounting when presented with visual stimuli that are considered attractive (Wilson & Daly, 2004).
This effect was particularly noticeable compared to the lack of this effect when they touched and examined men's t-shirts (Festjens, Bruyneel, & Dewitte, 2013).
There is an "antidote" to future discounting—if one forces oneself to contemplate a planned future event, the level of discounting decreases (Peters & Büchel, 2010).
It is important to note that the effect of discounting occurs both with real people and with photographs of people (Karremans et al., 2009).
Sexual images also alter the perception of time: individuals perceive that more time has elapsed than actually has, resulting in impatience to receive rewards (Kim & Zauberman, 2012).
Conversely, studies show that images of elderly faces slow the perception of time, as if internal clocks are ticking slower (Droit-Volet & Gil, 2009).
A correlation has been found: (van Gelder, Hershfield, & Nordgren, 2013).
They can vividly imagine unpleasant scenarios: (Crawford, Inbar, & Maloney, 2014).
Proximity influences attention; objects within arm's reach receive heightened focus (Reed et al., 2010).
In 1977, psychologists Wilson and Nisbett conducted a now-classic experiment (Nisbett & Wilson, 1977).
The identical touch, distorted by the imagined factor, created different versions of reality (Gazzola et al., 2012).
This effect is observed across people of all ages and cultures (Derksen et al., 2021).
Belgian scientists (Lacassagne et al., 2022) showed participants statements such as: “An elephant weighs less than an ant,” “An elephant can run faster than a cheetah,” and “Smoking is good for your lungs.”
Our Biased Perception of the World
The renowned psychologist Daniel Gilbert: (Gilbert, 2006).
Brain-Centrism
Neurobiologist Daniel Wolpert, in his TED talk, states: (Wolpert, 2011).
Motivated Perception
The brain's preference influenced its perception. The brain wanted to see something, and so it did (Leong et al., 2019).
Meaning – Everywhere and in Everything
The extract from its berries is called atropine: (Scholtz et al., 2019).
The Pupil Dilation Experiment: (Stass & Willis, 1967).
Dan Javitt, a psychiatrist from Columbia University in New York, says: "The brain loves a world with meaning, so it creates stories to explain strange experiences" (Thomson, 2016).
It is worth noting that anime characters often have dilated pupils, which could contribute to their perceived attractiveness (Lick, Cortland, & Johnson, 2016).
Exposure to pesticides used in farming can have detrimental effects on offspring (Fitzmaurice et al., 2014).
This difference in immune systems is conveyed through subtle scent cues, which, while not consciously perceived, can influence attraction (Kromer et al., 2016).
Confabulation
The Split-Brain Experiments: (Gazzaniga, 2015).
In an experiment conducted by Álvaro Pascual-Leone and his colleagues: (Brasil-Neto et al., 1992).
Numerous studies have supported self-perception theory: (Wilson, 2004).
“We are 'strangers to ourselves' (Wilson, 2004).
Maintaining a high status is crucial for various aspects of social life, including mate selection and securing support from peers (Bortolotti, 2018).
A study revealed that when colors in images were altered in the periphery of our vision, observers failed to notice the changes (Cohen & Rubenstein, 2019).
Panpsychism
There is more about panpsychism in: (Harris, 2019).
Denial of Reality – "Everyone Will Die, but I Will Remain"
At the conclusion of the experiment, a new face was presented, eliciting a consistent surprise response, as measured by physiological recordings (Dor-Ziderman, Lutz & Goldstein, 2019).
Understanding the Brain
However, the evolutionary process, constrained by trial and error, cannot simply redesign existing structures (Cherniak, 1994). Additionally, the vast number of potential brain placements, estimated to be 3.04 × 10^64, makes exhaustive exploration impractical.
Even slight alterations in the fundamental forces of nature could render life as we know it impossible (Cover Story, 2020).
Metaphors
In 2017, French neuroscientist Yves Frégnac highlighted a trend in neuroscience: (Frégnac, 2017).
Neuro-Mythology
While Sagan's book offered intriguing speculations, such as the notion that children's nightmares of monsters could be remnants of ancestral encounters with dinosaurs (Sagan, 1977).
Mental Illnesses
As Insel noted, 'we have not moved the needle in reducing suicides, lowering hospitalizations, or improving recovery for the tens of millions of people with mental disorders' (Cobb, 2020).
AstraZeneca followed suit, closing its divisions focused on schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, depression, and anxiety (Miller, 2010).
Other industry giants, including Novartis, Pfizer, Merck, and Sanofi, have also reduced their investment in psychiatric drug research (Wegener & Rujescu, 2013).
Some research teams are even receiving funding from agencies like DARPA to develop novel psychiatric drugs with improved safety profiles (Henderson, 2020).
In one case, a woman undergoing ECT: (Hamzelou, 2020).
Patients undergoing psilocybin therapy often report profound personal and spiritual experiences (Agin-Liebes et al., 2020).
Psilocybin therapy: (Davis et al., 2020).
Placebo effect: (Hall, 2022).
For instance, before the 19th century, there were documented cases of individuals who believed they were made of glass, fearing they would break into pieces (Speak, 1990).
The Extended Mind Theory
Beyond the Brain
The Extended Mind Theory: (Clark & Chalmers, 1998).
This underscores the importance of incorporating external resources and interactions into our understanding of the mind (Degregory, 2017).
Therefore, the view that the brain is the sole source of our identity, while the body is simply a disposable vessel, appears limited and misguided (Gault, 2021).
Sheckley’s citation: (Sheckley, 1966). The passage for his book is shortened and edited.
The key to understanding this lies in research on interoception—the perception of internal sensations, such as heartbeat, breathing rate, and feelings of hunger (Sutton, 2018).
It turned out that the illusion worked better for those whose heartbeat evoked potential was more pronounced (Spinney, 2020).
Blanke noted that signals from the heart are very predictable, and therefore, they may contribute to the sense of consciousness, which is usually attributed solely to the brain (Park et al., 2020).
In a series of experiments (Belli et al., 2021), scientists investigated how breathing affects cognitive functions.
This steady rhythm sends signals from the stomach to the brain every 20 seconds, and from the duodenum every 6 seconds (Azzalini, Rebollo, & Tallon-Baudry, 2019).
Story about the construction worker: (Margee, 2021).
However, if you think about a friend, the hill will appear less steep (Proffitt & Baer, 2020).
People who are more attuned to their internal signals may experience a different perception of the path ahead (Magnon et al., 2023).
In darts: those who hit the target perceived the dartboard as larger than those who missed (Wesp et al., 2004).
In American football: (Witt & Dorsch, 2009).
Softball was perceived by players depending on their skill and luck: (Witt & Proffitt, 2005).
Baseball players: (Witt et al., 2008).
Bottle of water: (Ross, 2010).
Story about judges: the decision about their fate—depends on the judge’s blood sugar level (Danziger, Levav, & Avnaim-Pesso, 2011).
It is worth noting that researchers attempting to replicate these findings believe the results may have been exaggerated (Glöckner, 2016).
Striptease dancers: (Miller, Tybur, & Jordan, 2007).
Waitresses with makeup also receive more tips (Jacob et al., 2010).
Testosterone
Man is willing to spend more money on something he wasn’t interested in just a minute earlier (Kenrick, Griskevicius, & Mahmoud, 2016).
The Testosterone Paradox
The more testosterone a man has, the less successful he is likely to be as a husband and father. He is more likely to exhibit antisocial behavior, cheat, and be violent toward his spouse (Booth & Dabbs Jr, 1993).
This is supported by evidence: in many cultures, women prefer such men, especially in countries where infectious diseases are prevalent (Shah, 2016).
The stronger their subconscious fear of infection, the more they were attracted to men with high testosterone levels (Little et al., 2011).
Even today, nearly half of deaths in people under 45 are due to infectious diseases (Shah, 2016).
Discounting the Future
Stress significantly influences our perception. It impairs memory, reducing the capacity to envision the future, and leads individuals to seek immediate rewards (Worthy, Byrne, & Fields, 2014).
Beyond stress, men also exhibit future discounting when presented with visual stimuli that are considered attractive (Wilson & Daly, 2004).
This effect was particularly noticeable compared to the lack of this effect when they touched and examined men's t-shirts (Festjens, Bruyneel, & Dewitte, 2013).
There is an "antidote" to future discounting—if one forces oneself to contemplate a planned future event, the level of discounting decreases (Peters & Büchel, 2010).
It is important to note that the effect of discounting occurs both with real people and with photographs of people (Karremans et al., 2009).
Sexual images also alter the perception of time: individuals perceive that more time has elapsed than actually has, resulting in impatience to receive rewards (Kim & Zauberman, 2012).
Conversely, studies show that images of elderly faces slow the perception of time, as if internal clocks are ticking slower (Droit-Volet & Gil, 2009).
A correlation has been found: (van Gelder, Hershfield, & Nordgren, 2013).
They can vividly imagine unpleasant scenarios: (Crawford, Inbar, & Maloney, 2014).
Proximity influences attention; objects within arm's reach receive heightened focus (Reed et al., 2010).
In 1977, psychologists Wilson and Nisbett conducted a now-classic experiment (Nisbett & Wilson, 1977).
The identical touch, distorted by the imagined factor, created different versions of reality (Gazzola et al., 2012).
This effect is observed across people of all ages and cultures (Derksen et al., 2021).
Belgian scientists (Lacassagne et al., 2022) showed participants statements such as: “An elephant weighs less than an ant,” “An elephant can run faster than a cheetah,” and “Smoking is good for your lungs.”
Our Biased Perception of the World
The renowned psychologist Daniel Gilbert: (Gilbert, 2006).
Brain-Centrism
Neurobiologist Daniel Wolpert, in his TED talk, states: (Wolpert, 2011).
Motivated Perception
The brain's preference influenced its perception. The brain wanted to see something, and so it did (Leong et al., 2019).
Meaning – Everywhere and in Everything
The extract from its berries is called atropine: (Scholtz et al., 2019).
The Pupil Dilation Experiment: (Stass & Willis, 1967).
Dan Javitt, a psychiatrist from Columbia University in New York, says: "The brain loves a world with meaning, so it creates stories to explain strange experiences" (Thomson, 2016).
It is worth noting that anime characters often have dilated pupils, which could contribute to their perceived attractiveness (Lick, Cortland, & Johnson, 2016).
Exposure to pesticides used in farming can have detrimental effects on offspring (Fitzmaurice et al., 2014).
This difference in immune systems is conveyed through subtle scent cues, which, while not consciously perceived, can influence attraction (Kromer et al., 2016).
Confabulation
The Split-Brain Experiments: (Gazzaniga, 2015).
In an experiment conducted by Álvaro Pascual-Leone and his colleagues: (Brasil-Neto et al., 1992).
Numerous studies have supported self-perception theory: (Wilson, 2004).
“We are 'strangers to ourselves' (Wilson, 2004).
Maintaining a high status is crucial for various aspects of social life, including mate selection and securing support from peers (Bortolotti, 2018).
A study revealed that when colors in images were altered in the periphery of our vision, observers failed to notice the changes (Cohen & Rubenstein, 2019).
Panpsychism
There is more about panpsychism in: (Harris, 2019).
Denial of Reality – "Everyone Will Die, but I Will Remain"
At the conclusion of the experiment, a new face was presented, eliciting a consistent surprise response, as measured by physiological recordings (Dor-Ziderman, Lutz & Goldstein, 2019).
Understanding the Brain
However, the evolutionary process, constrained by trial and error, cannot simply redesign existing structures (Cherniak, 1994). Additionally, the vast number of potential brain placements, estimated to be 3.04 × 10^64, makes exhaustive exploration impractical.
Even slight alterations in the fundamental forces of nature could render life as we know it impossible (Cover Story, 2020).
Metaphors
In 2017, French neuroscientist Yves Frégnac highlighted a trend in neuroscience: (Frégnac, 2017).
Neuro-Mythology
While Sagan's book offered intriguing speculations, such as the notion that children's nightmares of monsters could be remnants of ancestral encounters with dinosaurs (Sagan, 1977).
Mental Illnesses
As Insel noted, 'we have not moved the needle in reducing suicides, lowering hospitalizations, or improving recovery for the tens of millions of people with mental disorders' (Cobb, 2020).
AstraZeneca followed suit, closing its divisions focused on schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, depression, and anxiety (Miller, 2010).
Other industry giants, including Novartis, Pfizer, Merck, and Sanofi, have also reduced their investment in psychiatric drug research (Wegener & Rujescu, 2013).
Some research teams are even receiving funding from agencies like DARPA to develop novel psychiatric drugs with improved safety profiles (Henderson, 2020).
In one case, a woman undergoing ECT: (Hamzelou, 2020).
Patients undergoing psilocybin therapy often report profound personal and spiritual experiences (Agin-Liebes et al., 2020).
Psilocybin therapy: (Davis et al., 2020).
Placebo effect: (Hall, 2022).
For instance, before the 19th century, there were documented cases of individuals who believed they were made of glass, fearing they would break into pieces (Speak, 1990).
The Extended Mind Theory
Beyond the Brain
The Extended Mind Theory: (Clark & Chalmers, 1998).
This underscores the importance of incorporating external resources and interactions into our understanding of the mind (Degregory, 2017).
Therefore, the view that the brain is the sole source of our identity, while the body is simply a disposable vessel, appears limited and misguided (Gault, 2021).
4. Sensory Substitution
About cyborgs: (Fleischfresser, 2019).
“I’ve started to experience how it feels to lack a cybernetic sense, and I’m now feeling phantom earthquakes. How long will these last? Will the extraction of the cybernetic organ affect my identity? Am I a phantom cyborg now?” (Editor, 2015).
Qualia – How Things Appear to Us
Charles Connor, a professor of neuroscience at Johns Hopkins University, provides an example: imagine traveling to another planet inhabited by beings who possess all senses except one—vision: (Connor, 2018).
In 1974, American philosopher Thomas Nagel published his famous essay, What Is It Like to Be a Bat? (Nagel, 1974).
Ben’s story: (Schorn, 2006).
Differences in Human and Animal Perception
They construct their own realities. (De Waal, 2017).
The ability to detect changes in light polarization: (Zhang, 2018).
Lichen, which does not reflect ultraviolet, forms the primary diet of these animals (Hogg et al., 2014).
The world through the eyes of a flea is incomprehensible to us (Tong, 2019).
There is a very rare mutation in which a person: (Tong, 2019).
However, of course, he could not convey with paint what he saw, and even if he could, we would not be able to see it (Hambling, 2002).
Primates with color vision deficiencies can easily spot and catch camouflaged insects (Melin, 2017).
People with color blindness weren’t accepted into the army, but here lies the irony, as always, when someone thinks they’re smarter than evolution: (Eagleman, 2020).
Each animal has its own frequency: pigeons see at 100 Hz, dogs at 80 Hz, cats at 55 Hz, and sea turtles at 15 Hz (Reas, 2014).
Umwelt – a Unique World of Perception
German biologist Jakob von Uexküll introduced the concept of Umwelt: (Eagleman, 2012).
Paul Bach-y-Rita: "We See With Our Brain, not Our Eyes."
In the 1970s, Paul Bach-y-Rita made headlines: (Doidge, 2015).
The Institute for Human and Machine Cognition in Pensacola, Florida, was developing a tactile vest for pilots that would allow them to feel the proximity of other aircraft in the air or approaching missiles (Abrams & Winters, 2003).
The Thousand Brains Theory
Entrepreneur and neuroscientist Jeff Hawkins and his team believe they have made a breakthrough: (Hawkins, 2021).
As early as 1978, neurologist Vernon Mountcastle (Edelman & Mountcastle, 1978) observed that there was nothing in the motor cortex that distinguished it from the sensory cortex.
The tongue turned out to be a very convenient spot because of its incredible sensitivity: (Miles et al., 2018).
Non-Human Senses
After some time, they developed and repeatedly tested a special belt (https://www.feelspace.de).
In one experiment, participants wore the belt for seven weeks—they were only allowed to remove it for sleep or when sitting still for long periods (Kaspar et al., 2014).
However, the experience would still remain incomprehensible to someone who hadn’t felt it (Bains, 2007).
Sentero—a mobile device resembling a fitness tracker worn on the shoulder that vibrates towards the north. It can also vibrate to point towards a selected location, such as your home (https://www.cyborgnest.net).
The Brain Can Handle Anything
We can connect something, start receiving information, and our brain will figure it out (Eagleman, 2020).
The person learns to walk faster because they receive feedback and actually “feel” their artificial leg (Eagleman, 2020).
There was a chance it could lead to a primitive understanding of dog language (Kotler, 2019).
"If a lion could speak, we could not understand him" (Wittgenstein, 2009).
Eagleman and his colleagues decided to commercialize their sensory substitution research and, in 2015, founded the company Neosensory (https://neosensory.com).
After a while, the vibrations stop being noticeable, and the sounds, or rather their meaning, appear in the mind (Eagleman, 2020).
Charles Foster, a naturalist at heart, a veterinarian, and a lawyer by profession, has wanted to feel what it’s like to be another animal since childhood (Hattenstone, 2016).
Tried to befriend real badgers, and ate live worms. In his book (Foster, 2016)
About cyborgs: (Fleischfresser, 2019).
“I’ve started to experience how it feels to lack a cybernetic sense, and I’m now feeling phantom earthquakes. How long will these last? Will the extraction of the cybernetic organ affect my identity? Am I a phantom cyborg now?” (Editor, 2015).
Qualia – How Things Appear to Us
Charles Connor, a professor of neuroscience at Johns Hopkins University, provides an example: imagine traveling to another planet inhabited by beings who possess all senses except one—vision: (Connor, 2018).
In 1974, American philosopher Thomas Nagel published his famous essay, What Is It Like to Be a Bat? (Nagel, 1974).
Ben’s story: (Schorn, 2006).
Differences in Human and Animal Perception
They construct their own realities. (De Waal, 2017).
The ability to detect changes in light polarization: (Zhang, 2018).
Lichen, which does not reflect ultraviolet, forms the primary diet of these animals (Hogg et al., 2014).
The world through the eyes of a flea is incomprehensible to us (Tong, 2019).
There is a very rare mutation in which a person: (Tong, 2019).
However, of course, he could not convey with paint what he saw, and even if he could, we would not be able to see it (Hambling, 2002).
Primates with color vision deficiencies can easily spot and catch camouflaged insects (Melin, 2017).
People with color blindness weren’t accepted into the army, but here lies the irony, as always, when someone thinks they’re smarter than evolution: (Eagleman, 2020).
Each animal has its own frequency: pigeons see at 100 Hz, dogs at 80 Hz, cats at 55 Hz, and sea turtles at 15 Hz (Reas, 2014).
Umwelt – a Unique World of Perception
German biologist Jakob von Uexküll introduced the concept of Umwelt: (Eagleman, 2012).
Paul Bach-y-Rita: "We See With Our Brain, not Our Eyes."
In the 1970s, Paul Bach-y-Rita made headlines: (Doidge, 2015).
The Institute for Human and Machine Cognition in Pensacola, Florida, was developing a tactile vest for pilots that would allow them to feel the proximity of other aircraft in the air or approaching missiles (Abrams & Winters, 2003).
The Thousand Brains Theory
Entrepreneur and neuroscientist Jeff Hawkins and his team believe they have made a breakthrough: (Hawkins, 2021).
As early as 1978, neurologist Vernon Mountcastle (Edelman & Mountcastle, 1978) observed that there was nothing in the motor cortex that distinguished it from the sensory cortex.
The tongue turned out to be a very convenient spot because of its incredible sensitivity: (Miles et al., 2018).
Non-Human Senses
After some time, they developed and repeatedly tested a special belt (https://www.feelspace.de).
In one experiment, participants wore the belt for seven weeks—they were only allowed to remove it for sleep or when sitting still for long periods (Kaspar et al., 2014).
However, the experience would still remain incomprehensible to someone who hadn’t felt it (Bains, 2007).
Sentero—a mobile device resembling a fitness tracker worn on the shoulder that vibrates towards the north. It can also vibrate to point towards a selected location, such as your home (https://www.cyborgnest.net).
The Brain Can Handle Anything
We can connect something, start receiving information, and our brain will figure it out (Eagleman, 2020).
The person learns to walk faster because they receive feedback and actually “feel” their artificial leg (Eagleman, 2020).
There was a chance it could lead to a primitive understanding of dog language (Kotler, 2019).
"If a lion could speak, we could not understand him" (Wittgenstein, 2009).
Eagleman and his colleagues decided to commercialize their sensory substitution research and, in 2015, founded the company Neosensory (https://neosensory.com).
After a while, the vibrations stop being noticeable, and the sounds, or rather their meaning, appear in the mind (Eagleman, 2020).
Charles Foster, a naturalist at heart, a veterinarian, and a lawyer by profession, has wanted to feel what it’s like to be another animal since childhood (Hattenstone, 2016).
Tried to befriend real badgers, and ate live worms. In his book (Foster, 2016)
5. Social Reality
"Chilean Sea Bass" story: (Sutherland, 2019).
Today, due to ever-increasing demand, harvesting sea urchins brings in good money (Lidz, 2014).
Stefan Zweig citstion: (Zweig, 1969).
Research indicates that people tend to overestimate the purchasing power of their own money relative to others' (Polman, Effron, & Thomas, 2018).
Research suggests a correlation between wealth and decreased compassion (Dietze & Knowles, 2016).
Research even suggests a reversal of the adage 'it's better to have 100 friends than 100 rubles,' indicating that wealth can diminish the perceived value of friendships (Stellar et al., 2012).
Life Simulations
Could creating an artificial society allow us to preview the outcomes of our actions (Lawton, 2019)?
How will refugees adapt? How will Europeans respond? How will the social fabric transform? (Diallo et al., 2019).
This could lead to an 'arms race' in simulation development, driving the creation of increasingly accurate and detailed models (Lawton, 2019).
Two decades ago, Oxford philosopher Nick Bostrom proposed that future civilizations could create life simulations of their descendants.:(Bostrom, 2003).
Social Constructs
Leg hair removal became commonplace by 1940 (Edwards, 2015).
This exemplifies how the beauty industry often creates and then caters to perceived imperfections (Noble, 2023).
Wolf (2013) argues that this focus on physical perfection fuels the profitability and power of industries like dieting, cosmetics, aesthetic surgery, and pornography.
Research suggests that even newborns exhibit gender-specific preferences in visual attention (Baron-Cohen et al.).
While culture and society play a role, gender appears to be primarily rooted in biology (Connellan et al., 2000).
A BBC experiment highlighted how adults project gender stereotypes onto young children: (BBC, 2017).
A Key and Peele sketch: (Key & Peele, 2012).
Reputation
A 2015 global survey revealed that reputation was prioritized above all values except for safety (Vonasch et al., 2018).
The Danish film The Hunt (2012).
Another scenario involved choosing between a visible symbol with negative social connotations: (Vonasch et al., 2018).
Vonasch et al. (2018) also conducted real-world experiments to investigate the impact of reputation on behavior.
Riedel Glasses
The marketing of Riedel glasses exemplifies how perceived value can be created through narratives and associations: (Trott, 2021).
The Ploughman's Lunch
The invention of the 'traditional' Ploughman's Lunc: (Trott, 2021).
Myth of Mussolini's impact on train punctuality: (Evans, 1955; Dudley, 2016).
Milk Marketing Board to seek ways to increase sales: (Brown, 2003).
Forgeries and Imitations
A 2013 scandal: (Stevens, 2018).
Larry Olmsted, author of Real Food/Fake Food: (Olmsted, 2016).
Preferences Can Be Changed
The malleability of preferences: (Napier et al., 2017).
Conversely, inducing conservative views was achieved by exposing participants to stimuli associated with disgust and decay: (Haidt, 2012).
In 2020, Donald Trump tweeted that he had declined an invitation to appear on The John Oliver Show (Jeltsen, 2016).
Journalist Lawrence Tabak investigated the origins of this story (Tabak, 1996).
Tabak's investigation, which involved contacting potential participants and reviewing archival documents, concluded that the story was fabricated (Wiseman, 2009).
Supernormal Stimuli
Most of the facts here are from the great book of: (Barrett, 2010).
The exaggerated features of comic book characters, particularly in manga, often serve to appeal to the audience's sexual interests (Burch & Widman, 2021).
Research by April Gorry identified common characteristics of romantic heroes in novels that deviate from the average real-life male (Salmon & Symons, 2003).
Masking Reality
Stanislaw Lem's science fiction novel The Futurological Congress (Lem, 1985).
Public toilets story: (Barwich, 2020).
Disgust researcher and psychologist David Pizarro from Cornell University calls this sensation a 'built-in poison detector' (Pizarro, 2013).
The Future
Professor of psychology Fred Coolidge and Professor of anthropology Thomas Wynn: (2018).
"Chilean Sea Bass" story: (Sutherland, 2019).
Today, due to ever-increasing demand, harvesting sea urchins brings in good money (Lidz, 2014).
Stefan Zweig citstion: (Zweig, 1969).
Research indicates that people tend to overestimate the purchasing power of their own money relative to others' (Polman, Effron, & Thomas, 2018).
Research suggests a correlation between wealth and decreased compassion (Dietze & Knowles, 2016).
Research even suggests a reversal of the adage 'it's better to have 100 friends than 100 rubles,' indicating that wealth can diminish the perceived value of friendships (Stellar et al., 2012).
Life Simulations
Could creating an artificial society allow us to preview the outcomes of our actions (Lawton, 2019)?
How will refugees adapt? How will Europeans respond? How will the social fabric transform? (Diallo et al., 2019).
This could lead to an 'arms race' in simulation development, driving the creation of increasingly accurate and detailed models (Lawton, 2019).
Two decades ago, Oxford philosopher Nick Bostrom proposed that future civilizations could create life simulations of their descendants.:(Bostrom, 2003).
Social Constructs
Leg hair removal became commonplace by 1940 (Edwards, 2015).
This exemplifies how the beauty industry often creates and then caters to perceived imperfections (Noble, 2023).
Wolf (2013) argues that this focus on physical perfection fuels the profitability and power of industries like dieting, cosmetics, aesthetic surgery, and pornography.
Research suggests that even newborns exhibit gender-specific preferences in visual attention (Baron-Cohen et al.).
While culture and society play a role, gender appears to be primarily rooted in biology (Connellan et al., 2000).
A BBC experiment highlighted how adults project gender stereotypes onto young children: (BBC, 2017).
A Key and Peele sketch: (Key & Peele, 2012).
Reputation
A 2015 global survey revealed that reputation was prioritized above all values except for safety (Vonasch et al., 2018).
The Danish film The Hunt (2012).
Another scenario involved choosing between a visible symbol with negative social connotations: (Vonasch et al., 2018).
Vonasch et al. (2018) also conducted real-world experiments to investigate the impact of reputation on behavior.
Riedel Glasses
The marketing of Riedel glasses exemplifies how perceived value can be created through narratives and associations: (Trott, 2021).
The Ploughman's Lunch
The invention of the 'traditional' Ploughman's Lunc: (Trott, 2021).
Myth of Mussolini's impact on train punctuality: (Evans, 1955; Dudley, 2016).
Milk Marketing Board to seek ways to increase sales: (Brown, 2003).
Forgeries and Imitations
A 2013 scandal: (Stevens, 2018).
Larry Olmsted, author of Real Food/Fake Food: (Olmsted, 2016).
Preferences Can Be Changed
The malleability of preferences: (Napier et al., 2017).
Conversely, inducing conservative views was achieved by exposing participants to stimuli associated with disgust and decay: (Haidt, 2012).
In 2020, Donald Trump tweeted that he had declined an invitation to appear on The John Oliver Show (Jeltsen, 2016).
Journalist Lawrence Tabak investigated the origins of this story (Tabak, 1996).
Tabak's investigation, which involved contacting potential participants and reviewing archival documents, concluded that the story was fabricated (Wiseman, 2009).
Supernormal Stimuli
Most of the facts here are from the great book of: (Barrett, 2010).
The exaggerated features of comic book characters, particularly in manga, often serve to appeal to the audience's sexual interests (Burch & Widman, 2021).
Research by April Gorry identified common characteristics of romantic heroes in novels that deviate from the average real-life male (Salmon & Symons, 2003).
Masking Reality
Stanislaw Lem's science fiction novel The Futurological Congress (Lem, 1985).
Public toilets story: (Barwich, 2020).
Disgust researcher and psychologist David Pizarro from Cornell University calls this sensation a 'built-in poison detector' (Pizarro, 2013).
The Future
Professor of psychology Fred Coolidge and Professor of anthropology Thomas Wynn: (2018).
6. Virtual Reality
Jaron Lanier’s citation: (Heilbrun,1988).
A New Reality
The modern English term "virtual reality" was later coined in 1989 by Jaron Lanier, a computer scientist and the founder of VPL Research, the first VR product company (Bailenson, 2018).
Contemporary philosopher David Chalmers echoes this sentiment, arguing that virtual worlds are as real as the physical world, albeit composed of information rather than matter (Chalmers, 2022).
Applications of Virtual Reality
Corporate-owned virtual communities could limit user agency, highlighting the need for diverse, independent virtual worlds with user autonomy (Webb, 2022).
Stanford University's Virtual Human Interaction Sensors Lab: (Bailenson, 2018).
Embodied Labs: (https://embodiedlabs.com).
Research at San Francisco State University revealed that virtual boxing: (Reed, 2017).
Virtual environments tend to increase their physical activity levels in real life as well (Greenfield, 2024).
Google's Deep Dream artificial intelligence program to create psychedelic, dreamlike visuals that mimic hallucinatory experiences (Suzuki et al., 2017).
The Rubber Hand Illusion
Rubber hand illusion: (Botvinick & Cohen, 1998).
Scientists from Karolinska Institutet in Stockholm: (Guterstam, Petkova, & Ehrsson, 2011).
Even when researchers manipulate the rubber hand into unusual positions, participants report feeling corresponding sensations in their own hand (Lawton, 2009).
The rubber hand illusion has also shown therapeutic potential. In a study by Jalal et al. (2020).
In one experiment, participants were even enfaced with a monkey, leading to a temporary decrease in cognitive performance and an increased attribution of emotions to the monkey (Ma, Sellaro, & Hommel, 2018).
A carpenter in India with seven fingers showcases this adaptability (Swatman, 2015).
Similarly, a mother and son with six fingers on each hand demonstrate the functionality of extra fingers, enabling them to perform tasks that typically require two hands (Dalton & Roseberry, 2019; Mehring et al., 2019).
Even a child born with three arms highlights the potential for the brain to manage and utilize additional limbs (Sommerville, 2006).
This phenomenon may manifest as a feeling of numbness or a sensation of detachment from reality (Moffatt et al., 2024).
Avatars and Embodiment
All experiments described are from: (Lawton, 2009).
The Virtual Mirror and Self-Transformation
In one study, participants controlled an avatar with a third arm extending from its chest.: (Blanke & Metzinger, 2009).
Even an expensive business suit can influence hormone levels and negotiation skills (Adam & Galinsky, 2019).
Spanish psychologists scanned participants and created personalized virtual bodies that closely resembled them (Slater et al., 2019).
The Proteus Effect
Experiments described are from: (Yee & Bailenson, 2007).
Adults embodied in child avatars experience a shift in perspective, perceiving the world as larger and potentially experiencing a more positive mood (Banakou, Groten, & Slater, 2013; Tajadura-Jiménez et al., 2017).
Embodiment of a cow: (Bailenson, 2018).
Researchers have explored a wide range of avatar embodiments, including those with unusual body structures, such as extra limbs, tails, and even non-human forms like balls and cubes (Ma & Hommel, 2015).
Researchers at the University of Duisburg-Essen have successfully enabled participants to embody a variety of creatures, including a giant spider, a bat, and a tiger (Krekhov, Cmentowski, & Krüger, 2019).
The Reality of Virtual Reality
The results revealed that those who had virtually experienced the motorcycle ride exhibited memory recall patterns similar to those observed for real-life events (Schöne, Wessels, & Gruber, 2017).
"Nobody really, really understands what this technology is and how it can be used. At some level, the brain doesn't distinguish between real and virtual reality" (Rothman, 2018).
“Virtual reality is genuine reality. Or at least, virtual realities are genuine realities. Virtual worlds need not be second-class realities. They can be first-class realities” (Chalmers, 2022).
Some studies have reported a decrease in temperature and a histamine reaction in the real hand, similar to the body's response to foreign tissue (Barnsley et al., 2011; Salomon et al., 2013; Lane et al., 2017).
Additionally, the strength of electrical impulses to the real hand decreases, suggesting that the brain may be prioritizing the virtual hand (Sample, 2016).
The Future of Virtual Reality
Gabe Newell, co-founder and CEO of video game developer Valve, envisions a future: (Gault, 2021).
David Chalmers predicts that within a few decades, virtual reality will become indistinguishable from physical reality. This pursuit of heightened realism is driving ongoing research and development in the field.
The National University of Singapore has even developed a "digital lollipop" that simulates different flavors using temperature changes (Cheok & Karunanayaka, 2018).
Researchers at Carnegie Mellon University have developed a device that leverages this sensitivity to enhance tactile experiences in virtual reality (Spice, 2022).
In virtual sports games, haptic feedback is also being refined. For example, in a VR tennis game, players can feel the impact of the racket hitting the ball through a combination of recoil, vibration, and compressed air (Wilkins, 2022a).
VR masks are also being developed to provide respiratory sensations, simulating experiences such as high altitude or underwater immersion (Wilkins, 2022b).
For example, a seven-course virtual dining experience in New York costs just over $100, while a three-hour virtual feast at Sublimotion in Ibiza costs $2,000 (Brinkley, 2020).
Even the "digital doughnut" developed at Stanford's Virtual Reality Lab, which convincingly mimics the appearance and texture of a real doughnut, still relies on traditional flavorings to create the illusion of smell (Metz, 2017).
OVR Technology (https://ovrtechnology.com).
Substituting Reality
Researchers at the Adaptive Intelligence Laboratory at the RIKEN Institute of Brain Sciences in Japan conducted a series of experiments exploring the concept of substitutional reality.
In one experiment, participants wearing VR headsets: (Suzuki, Wakisaka, & Fujii, 2012).
This manipulation created a convincing illusion of a mixed reality, where participants struggled to differentiate between live and recorded elements (Fan et al., 2013).
Extended immersion in virtual reality can further blur the lines between real and virtual: (Greengard, 2019).
Researchers at Lancaster University and the University of Portsmouth explored the effects of substituting real objects with virtual ones (Simeone, Velloso, & Gellersen, 2015).
The physical objects they held in their hands varied—a replica lightsaber, an umbrella, or a flashlight—but 70% of participants misidentified the object they were holding (Simeone, Velloso, & Gellersen, 2015).
The Appeal of Virtual Reality for Billionaires
“Some people read this the wrong way and…”: (Gault, 2021).
“Not everyone can have a mansion…” (Gault, 2021).
Jaron Lanier’s citation: (Heilbrun,1988).
A New Reality
The modern English term "virtual reality" was later coined in 1989 by Jaron Lanier, a computer scientist and the founder of VPL Research, the first VR product company (Bailenson, 2018).
Contemporary philosopher David Chalmers echoes this sentiment, arguing that virtual worlds are as real as the physical world, albeit composed of information rather than matter (Chalmers, 2022).
Applications of Virtual Reality
Corporate-owned virtual communities could limit user agency, highlighting the need for diverse, independent virtual worlds with user autonomy (Webb, 2022).
Stanford University's Virtual Human Interaction Sensors Lab: (Bailenson, 2018).
Embodied Labs: (https://embodiedlabs.com).
Research at San Francisco State University revealed that virtual boxing: (Reed, 2017).
Virtual environments tend to increase their physical activity levels in real life as well (Greenfield, 2024).
Google's Deep Dream artificial intelligence program to create psychedelic, dreamlike visuals that mimic hallucinatory experiences (Suzuki et al., 2017).
The Rubber Hand Illusion
Rubber hand illusion: (Botvinick & Cohen, 1998).
Scientists from Karolinska Institutet in Stockholm: (Guterstam, Petkova, & Ehrsson, 2011).
Even when researchers manipulate the rubber hand into unusual positions, participants report feeling corresponding sensations in their own hand (Lawton, 2009).
The rubber hand illusion has also shown therapeutic potential. In a study by Jalal et al. (2020).
In one experiment, participants were even enfaced with a monkey, leading to a temporary decrease in cognitive performance and an increased attribution of emotions to the monkey (Ma, Sellaro, & Hommel, 2018).
A carpenter in India with seven fingers showcases this adaptability (Swatman, 2015).
Similarly, a mother and son with six fingers on each hand demonstrate the functionality of extra fingers, enabling them to perform tasks that typically require two hands (Dalton & Roseberry, 2019; Mehring et al., 2019).
Even a child born with three arms highlights the potential for the brain to manage and utilize additional limbs (Sommerville, 2006).
This phenomenon may manifest as a feeling of numbness or a sensation of detachment from reality (Moffatt et al., 2024).
Avatars and Embodiment
All experiments described are from: (Lawton, 2009).
The Virtual Mirror and Self-Transformation
In one study, participants controlled an avatar with a third arm extending from its chest.: (Blanke & Metzinger, 2009).
Even an expensive business suit can influence hormone levels and negotiation skills (Adam & Galinsky, 2019).
Spanish psychologists scanned participants and created personalized virtual bodies that closely resembled them (Slater et al., 2019).
The Proteus Effect
Experiments described are from: (Yee & Bailenson, 2007).
Adults embodied in child avatars experience a shift in perspective, perceiving the world as larger and potentially experiencing a more positive mood (Banakou, Groten, & Slater, 2013; Tajadura-Jiménez et al., 2017).
Embodiment of a cow: (Bailenson, 2018).
Researchers have explored a wide range of avatar embodiments, including those with unusual body structures, such as extra limbs, tails, and even non-human forms like balls and cubes (Ma & Hommel, 2015).
Researchers at the University of Duisburg-Essen have successfully enabled participants to embody a variety of creatures, including a giant spider, a bat, and a tiger (Krekhov, Cmentowski, & Krüger, 2019).
The Reality of Virtual Reality
The results revealed that those who had virtually experienced the motorcycle ride exhibited memory recall patterns similar to those observed for real-life events (Schöne, Wessels, & Gruber, 2017).
"Nobody really, really understands what this technology is and how it can be used. At some level, the brain doesn't distinguish between real and virtual reality" (Rothman, 2018).
“Virtual reality is genuine reality. Or at least, virtual realities are genuine realities. Virtual worlds need not be second-class realities. They can be first-class realities” (Chalmers, 2022).
Some studies have reported a decrease in temperature and a histamine reaction in the real hand, similar to the body's response to foreign tissue (Barnsley et al., 2011; Salomon et al., 2013; Lane et al., 2017).
Additionally, the strength of electrical impulses to the real hand decreases, suggesting that the brain may be prioritizing the virtual hand (Sample, 2016).
The Future of Virtual Reality
Gabe Newell, co-founder and CEO of video game developer Valve, envisions a future: (Gault, 2021).
David Chalmers predicts that within a few decades, virtual reality will become indistinguishable from physical reality. This pursuit of heightened realism is driving ongoing research and development in the field.
The National University of Singapore has even developed a "digital lollipop" that simulates different flavors using temperature changes (Cheok & Karunanayaka, 2018).
Researchers at Carnegie Mellon University have developed a device that leverages this sensitivity to enhance tactile experiences in virtual reality (Spice, 2022).
In virtual sports games, haptic feedback is also being refined. For example, in a VR tennis game, players can feel the impact of the racket hitting the ball through a combination of recoil, vibration, and compressed air (Wilkins, 2022a).
VR masks are also being developed to provide respiratory sensations, simulating experiences such as high altitude or underwater immersion (Wilkins, 2022b).
For example, a seven-course virtual dining experience in New York costs just over $100, while a three-hour virtual feast at Sublimotion in Ibiza costs $2,000 (Brinkley, 2020).
Even the "digital doughnut" developed at Stanford's Virtual Reality Lab, which convincingly mimics the appearance and texture of a real doughnut, still relies on traditional flavorings to create the illusion of smell (Metz, 2017).
OVR Technology (https://ovrtechnology.com).
Substituting Reality
Researchers at the Adaptive Intelligence Laboratory at the RIKEN Institute of Brain Sciences in Japan conducted a series of experiments exploring the concept of substitutional reality.
In one experiment, participants wearing VR headsets: (Suzuki, Wakisaka, & Fujii, 2012).
This manipulation created a convincing illusion of a mixed reality, where participants struggled to differentiate between live and recorded elements (Fan et al., 2013).
Extended immersion in virtual reality can further blur the lines between real and virtual: (Greengard, 2019).
Researchers at Lancaster University and the University of Portsmouth explored the effects of substituting real objects with virtual ones (Simeone, Velloso, & Gellersen, 2015).
The physical objects they held in their hands varied—a replica lightsaber, an umbrella, or a flashlight—but 70% of participants misidentified the object they were holding (Simeone, Velloso, & Gellersen, 2015).
The Appeal of Virtual Reality for Billionaires
“Some people read this the wrong way and…”: (Gault, 2021).
“Not everyone can have a mansion…” (Gault, 2021).
7. Psychedelic Reality
Citation of Albert Hofmann from: (Grof, 2013).
In a conversation with the English writer and philosopher Aldous Huxley, he explained that the word means "manifestants of the mind" (Tanne, 2004).
Other researchers have argued that the kykeon or the biscuits served at the mysteries contained mushrooms of the psilocybe genus (Wasson et al., 2008).
What is it that is so important that happens to a person when interacting with psychedelics? (Patton, 2023).
A world Without Perceptual Filters
Recent studies have shown that taking psychedelics reduces the functional connections between areas of the brain (Carhart-Harris & Friston, 2019).
"If I reach for a bottle now and I can't take it because it appears to be a phantom bottle, I'd be surprised. It is so contrary to my expectations that it should stun me. But in my dreams I can walk through a wall and fly, and I am not surprised at all" (Harris, 2021).
Features of Psychedelics
In The Doors of Perception (Huxley, 2010), Aldous Huxley describes the mescaline experience as perceiving reality 'as it is'.
Many researchers also believe that psychedelics reveal something that is inside of us, rather than bringing us some outside experience (Appendino et al., 2014).
Despite the popularity of such stories, psychedelic researchers who do things by science do not observe any elves or other creatures under the influence of DMT (Doblin, 2021).
Rick Doblin, psychedelics researcher, founder and executive director of the Multidisciplinary Association for Psychedelic Studies (MAPS), likened it to "traveling to previous lives" where everyone always ends up as past kings and queens (Doblin, 2021).
The effects of DMT are short-term, but researchers have found a way to prolong them (Gallimore & Strassman, 2016).
It will also test whether two people in different rooms but hooked up to the same DMT drip can communicate with each other on the same psychedelic journey (Higginbottom, 2023).
Whose Reality Is it Anyway?
Trying to close one's eyes does not solve the problem - the images produced by the brain without perceptual organs, from memory, emotion and imagination, are so rich, numerous and rapidly changing that it is even easier with eyes open (Huxley, 2010).
Even DMT (dimethyltryptamine) is produced by the brain during dreams (Doblin, 2021).
Andrew Gallimore, a researcher in computational neurobiology, pharmacology, chemistry and psychedelics (especially DMT), has recently published a book (Gallimore, 2022).
Apples, potatoes, tea, marijuana, along with thousands of other plants have succeeded in terms of people employed (Pollan, 2002).
Healing Psychedelics
All facts in the section are from: (Doblin, 2021).
A Portal to Another World
A report by the IDEAS Centre at the London School of Economics, Governing the Global Drug Wars (Collins, 2012).
Peyote was declared a heretical perversion that undermined the purity and unity of the Catholic faith (Doblin, 2021).
Donald Hoffman suggests that perhaps psychedelics are a portal to another world normally hidden from us (Doblin, 2021).
Citation of Albert Hofmann from: (Grof, 2013).
In a conversation with the English writer and philosopher Aldous Huxley, he explained that the word means "manifestants of the mind" (Tanne, 2004).
Other researchers have argued that the kykeon or the biscuits served at the mysteries contained mushrooms of the psilocybe genus (Wasson et al., 2008).
What is it that is so important that happens to a person when interacting with psychedelics? (Patton, 2023).
A world Without Perceptual Filters
Recent studies have shown that taking psychedelics reduces the functional connections between areas of the brain (Carhart-Harris & Friston, 2019).
"If I reach for a bottle now and I can't take it because it appears to be a phantom bottle, I'd be surprised. It is so contrary to my expectations that it should stun me. But in my dreams I can walk through a wall and fly, and I am not surprised at all" (Harris, 2021).
Features of Psychedelics
In The Doors of Perception (Huxley, 2010), Aldous Huxley describes the mescaline experience as perceiving reality 'as it is'.
Many researchers also believe that psychedelics reveal something that is inside of us, rather than bringing us some outside experience (Appendino et al., 2014).
Despite the popularity of such stories, psychedelic researchers who do things by science do not observe any elves or other creatures under the influence of DMT (Doblin, 2021).
Rick Doblin, psychedelics researcher, founder and executive director of the Multidisciplinary Association for Psychedelic Studies (MAPS), likened it to "traveling to previous lives" where everyone always ends up as past kings and queens (Doblin, 2021).
The effects of DMT are short-term, but researchers have found a way to prolong them (Gallimore & Strassman, 2016).
It will also test whether two people in different rooms but hooked up to the same DMT drip can communicate with each other on the same psychedelic journey (Higginbottom, 2023).
Whose Reality Is it Anyway?
Trying to close one's eyes does not solve the problem - the images produced by the brain without perceptual organs, from memory, emotion and imagination, are so rich, numerous and rapidly changing that it is even easier with eyes open (Huxley, 2010).
Even DMT (dimethyltryptamine) is produced by the brain during dreams (Doblin, 2021).
Andrew Gallimore, a researcher in computational neurobiology, pharmacology, chemistry and psychedelics (especially DMT), has recently published a book (Gallimore, 2022).
Apples, potatoes, tea, marijuana, along with thousands of other plants have succeeded in terms of people employed (Pollan, 2002).
Healing Psychedelics
All facts in the section are from: (Doblin, 2021).
A Portal to Another World
A report by the IDEAS Centre at the London School of Economics, Governing the Global Drug Wars (Collins, 2012).
Peyote was declared a heretical perversion that undermined the purity and unity of the Catholic faith (Doblin, 2021).
Donald Hoffman suggests that perhaps psychedelics are a portal to another world normally hidden from us (Doblin, 2021).
8. Reality Constructed by Sex
Robert Henlein’s citation is from: https://theysaidso.com/quote/robert-a-heinlein-i-dont-see-why-human-people-make-such-a-heavy-trip-out-of-sex
The Meaning of Life
The meaning of life, then, is not survival, sex, having children, or grandchildren (Stewart-Williams, 2018).
This is what priests, sages, and philosophers have searched in vain for: the ultimate explanation for our existence" (Stewart-Williams, 2018).
Explanations
One person described it this way, "Sex is now like wrapping your arms around a cardboard box" (Hay, 2021).
"Any individual who chooses not to have children, or cannot have children, interrupts an unbroken chain of life stretching back four billion years" (Stewart-Williams, 2018).
Today we know that epigenetic changes can sometimes take hours or even minutes to occur (Arnold, 2020).
Since then, sex has been the preferred method of most organisms on the planet (Hortsman, 2012).
On the other hand, risk is everywhere: for example, when we eat, we can get poisoned, have a metabolic disorder, have an allergic reaction, or become infected (Barnhill et al., 2018).
Theories of Sex
There are about fifty theories as to why sex has become so popular among other means of gene propagation (Hortsman, 2012).
The term comes from Lewis Carroll's Alice in the Looking Glass, from Alice's dialogue with the Red (in modern translations Black) Queen (Carroll, 2011).
Humans have achieved their position among the other animals through sex. Sex seems to be a prerequisite for high intelligence (Wilcox, 2020).
Robert Trivers' theory of parental investment: (Trivers, 2017).
In 1948, British geneticist Angus Bateman formulated the Bateman Principle: (Brown et al., 2009).
Someone is lying, perhaps everyone is: some exaggerate and others downplay (de Waal, 2022).
The lie detector was turned off, but as we can see, it worked, perhaps even more effectively (Alexander & Fisher, 2003).
Perhaps the function of sex is not only for reproduction, but also to strengthen social bonds? (King, 2022).
What We Know About Sex
Many facts in this section are from: (Nagoski, 2015).
According to Judson Brewer, a neuroscientist, psychiatrist, director of research and innovation at Brown University's Center for Mindfulness, and researcher at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, the imitation of orgasms in women happens more often than orgasms themselves (Brewer, 2023).
Parts of the nerve fibers of the clitoris can escape into the vaginal walls, so some stimulation during penetration is possible, but it is essentially stimulation of the clitoris, just from the inside (Pauls, 2015).
Thick nerves are present there that connect the body and the brain. It can in no way be accidental (Puppo, 2013).
Since then, it has been proven many times that such a point does not exist (Mollaioli et al., 2021).
What is interesting is that this same belief is shared by many articles in popular publications (Gaitskill, 2022).
Today we know that masturbation is generally quite beneficial, especially for men (Ritchey et al., 2024).
The real figures are between 1 and 4 percent (Larmuseau et al., 2016).
The hypothesis was tested in one study and later not confirmed by two subsequent groups of scientists (Koessler et al., 2021).
This is also not supported (Gangestad & Dinh, 2022).
Polyamory
In 2010, the bestselling book Sex at Dawn by Christopher Ryan and Cacilda Jethá was published (Ryan & Jethá, 2010).
Sex in the Reward System
Tolstoy was well versed in these matters because, by his own admission, he had never been able to conquer his desire (Wilson, 1988).
The number of people who thought it was okay not to use a condom also rose. (Ariely & Loewenstein, 2006).
Our brain has a specific reward system that consists of three components: (Berridge & Kringelbach, 2013).
"Sexual fantasies are personal pornography in which we rehearse over and over again our desires that cannot be fulfilled in real life" (Goleman & Bush, 1977).
This applies primarily to military uniforms. Interestingly, the most popular genre is not realistic videos with perfect beauties, but hentai (PornHub, 2023).
Sigmund Freud considered sexual fantasies to be abnormal: (Kronhausen & Kronhausen, 1970).
The American Christian sex therapist Douglas Rosinu said that "sex is 80% imagination and 20% friction" (Dillow & Slattery, 2013).
Why Women Have Sex
A woman cannot understand why her spouse cheated on her with a woman who she feels does not compare to her (Toates, 2014).
Evolutionary psychologist David Buss and clinical psychologist Cindy Meston, based on thousands of interviews with women, released a book, Why Women Have Sex (Meston & Buss, 2009).
As soon as the medication was stopped, the sexual behavior became more regulated (Dodd et al., 2005; Mendez & Shapira, 2011).
The fact that women's olfactory bulbs (the part of the brain that processes smells) are 40 percent denser than men's suggests that smell contains quite a lot of information for a woman's decision-making (King, 2022).
Woman's Choice
This will be fair and good for both sexes, and any woman will be grateful to the man for doing something for both himself and her (Miller, 2009; Max & Miller, 2015).
We would hope that all relationships with women may be based on mutual pleasure, rather than being a struggle for both parties to get a woman into bed (Miller, 2009; Max & Miller, 2015).
"For to the one who has, more will be given, and he will have an abundance, but from the one who has not, even what he has will be taken away" (Miller, 2009; Max & Miller, 2015).
Because curiosity is the way to understanding others and ourselves" (Aella, 2023).
Aella conducted a study and found that about 60% of women want to be submissive in sex, but only 40% of men prefer to be dominant. The 20% difference is significant and difficult to explain (Aella, 2023).
Another curious finding was revealed in a study of the interests of recently married couples (Buss et al., 2008).
Sitting in a coffee shop, we usefully spend a few minutes observing a person of the opposite sex and trying to imagine ourselves in their body (Max & Miller, 2015).
Darwin was right when he said: "The power to charm the female has sometimes been more important than the power to conquer other males in battle" (Darwin, 1989).
Depth Perspective
Parents will protect and nurture until it becomes independent (de Waal, 2022).
What Happens Next?
This is happening globally, in all countries. If the trend continues, by 2050 the average man will not be able to have children without medical intervention (Levine et al., 2022).
Whereas in 1970 the number of people married at the time of the survey was 80%, in 2018 it is only 50% (McCloskey, 2023).
Many people simply give up after years of looking for a relationship, almost half of single men and women did not go on a date in 2022, and only 40% of singles use dating apps (Match/Kinsey Institute, 2022).
On the other hand, Stanford University law professor Henry Greely believes that sex of the future will not be for reproduction: (Greely, 2016).
Sex will become more social, losing its exclusivity and mystery: (Devlin, 2018; Alptraum, 2019).
It has long been known and scientifically proven that regular sex reduces the risk of cardiovascular disease, stroke, and generally prolongs life expectancy (Hall et al., 2010).
A man between 20 and 30 years old, according to scientists, should ejaculate at least once a day, even if it is through masturbation (Giles et al., 2003).
Both partners have improved cognitive brain function (Wilcox, 2020).
When sex with a partner ends in orgasm, sleep is significantly improved (Oesterling et al., 2023).
Robert Henlein’s citation is from: https://theysaidso.com/quote/robert-a-heinlein-i-dont-see-why-human-people-make-such-a-heavy-trip-out-of-sex
The Meaning of Life
The meaning of life, then, is not survival, sex, having children, or grandchildren (Stewart-Williams, 2018).
This is what priests, sages, and philosophers have searched in vain for: the ultimate explanation for our existence" (Stewart-Williams, 2018).
Explanations
One person described it this way, "Sex is now like wrapping your arms around a cardboard box" (Hay, 2021).
"Any individual who chooses not to have children, or cannot have children, interrupts an unbroken chain of life stretching back four billion years" (Stewart-Williams, 2018).
Today we know that epigenetic changes can sometimes take hours or even minutes to occur (Arnold, 2020).
Since then, sex has been the preferred method of most organisms on the planet (Hortsman, 2012).
On the other hand, risk is everywhere: for example, when we eat, we can get poisoned, have a metabolic disorder, have an allergic reaction, or become infected (Barnhill et al., 2018).
Theories of Sex
There are about fifty theories as to why sex has become so popular among other means of gene propagation (Hortsman, 2012).
The term comes from Lewis Carroll's Alice in the Looking Glass, from Alice's dialogue with the Red (in modern translations Black) Queen (Carroll, 2011).
Humans have achieved their position among the other animals through sex. Sex seems to be a prerequisite for high intelligence (Wilcox, 2020).
Robert Trivers' theory of parental investment: (Trivers, 2017).
In 1948, British geneticist Angus Bateman formulated the Bateman Principle: (Brown et al., 2009).
Someone is lying, perhaps everyone is: some exaggerate and others downplay (de Waal, 2022).
The lie detector was turned off, but as we can see, it worked, perhaps even more effectively (Alexander & Fisher, 2003).
Perhaps the function of sex is not only for reproduction, but also to strengthen social bonds? (King, 2022).
What We Know About Sex
Many facts in this section are from: (Nagoski, 2015).
According to Judson Brewer, a neuroscientist, psychiatrist, director of research and innovation at Brown University's Center for Mindfulness, and researcher at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, the imitation of orgasms in women happens more often than orgasms themselves (Brewer, 2023).
Parts of the nerve fibers of the clitoris can escape into the vaginal walls, so some stimulation during penetration is possible, but it is essentially stimulation of the clitoris, just from the inside (Pauls, 2015).
Thick nerves are present there that connect the body and the brain. It can in no way be accidental (Puppo, 2013).
Since then, it has been proven many times that such a point does not exist (Mollaioli et al., 2021).
What is interesting is that this same belief is shared by many articles in popular publications (Gaitskill, 2022).
Today we know that masturbation is generally quite beneficial, especially for men (Ritchey et al., 2024).
The real figures are between 1 and 4 percent (Larmuseau et al., 2016).
The hypothesis was tested in one study and later not confirmed by two subsequent groups of scientists (Koessler et al., 2021).
This is also not supported (Gangestad & Dinh, 2022).
Polyamory
In 2010, the bestselling book Sex at Dawn by Christopher Ryan and Cacilda Jethá was published (Ryan & Jethá, 2010).
Sex in the Reward System
Tolstoy was well versed in these matters because, by his own admission, he had never been able to conquer his desire (Wilson, 1988).
The number of people who thought it was okay not to use a condom also rose. (Ariely & Loewenstein, 2006).
Our brain has a specific reward system that consists of three components: (Berridge & Kringelbach, 2013).
"Sexual fantasies are personal pornography in which we rehearse over and over again our desires that cannot be fulfilled in real life" (Goleman & Bush, 1977).
This applies primarily to military uniforms. Interestingly, the most popular genre is not realistic videos with perfect beauties, but hentai (PornHub, 2023).
Sigmund Freud considered sexual fantasies to be abnormal: (Kronhausen & Kronhausen, 1970).
The American Christian sex therapist Douglas Rosinu said that "sex is 80% imagination and 20% friction" (Dillow & Slattery, 2013).
Why Women Have Sex
A woman cannot understand why her spouse cheated on her with a woman who she feels does not compare to her (Toates, 2014).
Evolutionary psychologist David Buss and clinical psychologist Cindy Meston, based on thousands of interviews with women, released a book, Why Women Have Sex (Meston & Buss, 2009).
As soon as the medication was stopped, the sexual behavior became more regulated (Dodd et al., 2005; Mendez & Shapira, 2011).
The fact that women's olfactory bulbs (the part of the brain that processes smells) are 40 percent denser than men's suggests that smell contains quite a lot of information for a woman's decision-making (King, 2022).
Woman's Choice
This will be fair and good for both sexes, and any woman will be grateful to the man for doing something for both himself and her (Miller, 2009; Max & Miller, 2015).
We would hope that all relationships with women may be based on mutual pleasure, rather than being a struggle for both parties to get a woman into bed (Miller, 2009; Max & Miller, 2015).
"For to the one who has, more will be given, and he will have an abundance, but from the one who has not, even what he has will be taken away" (Miller, 2009; Max & Miller, 2015).
Because curiosity is the way to understanding others and ourselves" (Aella, 2023).
Aella conducted a study and found that about 60% of women want to be submissive in sex, but only 40% of men prefer to be dominant. The 20% difference is significant and difficult to explain (Aella, 2023).
Another curious finding was revealed in a study of the interests of recently married couples (Buss et al., 2008).
Sitting in a coffee shop, we usefully spend a few minutes observing a person of the opposite sex and trying to imagine ourselves in their body (Max & Miller, 2015).
Darwin was right when he said: "The power to charm the female has sometimes been more important than the power to conquer other males in battle" (Darwin, 1989).
Depth Perspective
Parents will protect and nurture until it becomes independent (de Waal, 2022).
What Happens Next?
This is happening globally, in all countries. If the trend continues, by 2050 the average man will not be able to have children without medical intervention (Levine et al., 2022).
Whereas in 1970 the number of people married at the time of the survey was 80%, in 2018 it is only 50% (McCloskey, 2023).
Many people simply give up after years of looking for a relationship, almost half of single men and women did not go on a date in 2022, and only 40% of singles use dating apps (Match/Kinsey Institute, 2022).
On the other hand, Stanford University law professor Henry Greely believes that sex of the future will not be for reproduction: (Greely, 2016).
Sex will become more social, losing its exclusivity and mystery: (Devlin, 2018; Alptraum, 2019).
It has long been known and scientifically proven that regular sex reduces the risk of cardiovascular disease, stroke, and generally prolongs life expectancy (Hall et al., 2010).
A man between 20 and 30 years old, according to scientists, should ejaculate at least once a day, even if it is through masturbation (Giles et al., 2003).
Both partners have improved cognitive brain function (Wilcox, 2020).
When sex with a partner ends in orgasm, sleep is significantly improved (Oesterling et al., 2023).
9. Magical Reality
World of Magic
Story about the Holy Grail: (Dunning, 2020).
Story about Scientology: (South Park, 2005).
About Bridey Murphy: (Randi, 1995).
American psychiatrist Ian Stevenson has collected over forty years more than three thousand cases: (Tucker, 2008).
Quantum Magic: The Misuse of Scientific Concepts
Laura Berman informs us in "Quantum Love: Use Your Body's Atomic Energy to Create the Relationship You Want" (Berman, 2017).
Recent experiments have shown some indication of quantum events in microtubules, but this has yet to be verified (Lewton, 2022).
Actress and successful businesswoman Gwyneth Paltrow created "Goop Lab," ("The Goop Lab," 2020).
Canadian chiropractor Mark Metus has almost received one hundred thousand dollars for a startup clothespin that "instantly increases muscle strength and improves balance" (CBC News, 2018).
Quantum entanglement is a phenomenon that is difficult to understand, but one thing is certain – it concerns only elementary particles and cannot be observed in our everyday world (Ferry, 2023).
Ritual Magic: A Timeless Practice
In her classic 1949 work, "Ritual Magic," Cambridge University Professor Elizabeth Butler argues that occult practices and knowledge can be divided into three main branches: (Butler, 1949).
Rituals in sport: (Brooks et al., 2016).
Nadal wrote in his autobiography that it is not superstition: (Xygalatas, 2022).
Melanesian Aborigines perform elaborate rituals before embarking on a dangerous ocean voyage and very simple ones when navigating shallow waters (Brooks et al., 2016).
A set of repetitive prayers recited using a rosary reduces anxiety and worry; this has been proven repeatedly (Anastasi & Newberg, 2008).
Scholars identify three characteristics of ritual (Brooks et al., 2016).
Example of ritual: (Brooks et al., 2016).
These are the findings from experimental studies in which people were imputed with loss of control and began to see patterns where none existed (Whitson & Galinsky, 2008).
Daniel Wagner, a professor of psychology at Harvard and a researcher of magical thinking, said that he constantly had to deal with students who were unsure of their abilities: (Carey, 2007).
Magical Thinking: An Intuitive Concept
Magical thinking was activated (Pronin et al., 2006).
The lower the sense of control and the higher the anxiety, the more people were inclined to the idea that such a demiurge existed (Laurin, Kay, & Moscovitch, 2008).
Sympathetic magic consists of two main principles (Nemeroff & Rozin, 2000).
The German philosopher Eugen Herrigel taught at a Japanese university for several years, and there he began to study Kyudo, the art of archery: (Herrigel, 1953).
A number of studies have shown that when people use a golf club or a famous athlete's racket, their game improves (Lee et al., 2011).
Improvements have been attributed to an increase in self-efficacy, that is, an increase in self-belief (Damisch, Stoberock, & Mussweiler, 2010).
Michio Kaku, a professor of theoretical physics at the City University of New York, believes that both telepathy and telekinesis will soon be available thanks to new technologies (Kaku, 2015).
Musk has even more fantastic plans to achieve with these technologies: control of the smart home, robots, and more; a significant improvement in memory; and a "backup" of consciousness (Fridman, 2024).
Abandon magical thinking for a while, than it will take for him to believe in yet another manifestation of magical reality (Ferrie, 2023).
Tricks and Illusions: The Brain's Deception
A magician might ask, "Do you remember which card you picked?" while looking directly at the spectator. As the spectator looks up to recall the card, their attention shifts away from the deck, providing an opportunity for manipulation (Brown, 2021).
By emphasizing certain elements, the magician creates a "tunnel vision" effect, drawing attention away from the crucial sleight of hand (Brown, 2021).
We see the movements the magician wants us to see, while the actions that mask the true method remain hidden (Macknik et al., 2008).
Magicians understand that "large movements cover small movements," and "if more than one movement is visible, the eyes will follow the larger one" (Yao, Wood, & Simons, 2019).
The famous "Invisible Gorilla" experiment: (Simons & Chabris, 1999).
Further research with eye-tracking technology revealed that people sometimes miss the "gorilla" even when looking directly at it (Memmert, 2006).
Analysis of these accounts suggests that the descriptions became more elaborate and detailed over time, likely due to embellishment and the influence of suggestion (Wiseman & Lamont, 1996).
This suggests that attention, not just visual focus, is the key factor being manipulated (Kuhn & Tatler, 2005).
Magicians exploit this by creating illusory correlations (Macknik et al., 2008). A study where participants were tricked into believing: (Johansson et al., 2005).
World of Magic
Story about the Holy Grail: (Dunning, 2020).
Story about Scientology: (South Park, 2005).
About Bridey Murphy: (Randi, 1995).
American psychiatrist Ian Stevenson has collected over forty years more than three thousand cases: (Tucker, 2008).
Quantum Magic: The Misuse of Scientific Concepts
Laura Berman informs us in "Quantum Love: Use Your Body's Atomic Energy to Create the Relationship You Want" (Berman, 2017).
Recent experiments have shown some indication of quantum events in microtubules, but this has yet to be verified (Lewton, 2022).
Actress and successful businesswoman Gwyneth Paltrow created "Goop Lab," ("The Goop Lab," 2020).
Canadian chiropractor Mark Metus has almost received one hundred thousand dollars for a startup clothespin that "instantly increases muscle strength and improves balance" (CBC News, 2018).
Quantum entanglement is a phenomenon that is difficult to understand, but one thing is certain – it concerns only elementary particles and cannot be observed in our everyday world (Ferry, 2023).
Ritual Magic: A Timeless Practice
In her classic 1949 work, "Ritual Magic," Cambridge University Professor Elizabeth Butler argues that occult practices and knowledge can be divided into three main branches: (Butler, 1949).
Rituals in sport: (Brooks et al., 2016).
Nadal wrote in his autobiography that it is not superstition: (Xygalatas, 2022).
Melanesian Aborigines perform elaborate rituals before embarking on a dangerous ocean voyage and very simple ones when navigating shallow waters (Brooks et al., 2016).
A set of repetitive prayers recited using a rosary reduces anxiety and worry; this has been proven repeatedly (Anastasi & Newberg, 2008).
Scholars identify three characteristics of ritual (Brooks et al., 2016).
Example of ritual: (Brooks et al., 2016).
These are the findings from experimental studies in which people were imputed with loss of control and began to see patterns where none existed (Whitson & Galinsky, 2008).
Daniel Wagner, a professor of psychology at Harvard and a researcher of magical thinking, said that he constantly had to deal with students who were unsure of their abilities: (Carey, 2007).
Magical Thinking: An Intuitive Concept
Magical thinking was activated (Pronin et al., 2006).
The lower the sense of control and the higher the anxiety, the more people were inclined to the idea that such a demiurge existed (Laurin, Kay, & Moscovitch, 2008).
Sympathetic magic consists of two main principles (Nemeroff & Rozin, 2000).
The German philosopher Eugen Herrigel taught at a Japanese university for several years, and there he began to study Kyudo, the art of archery: (Herrigel, 1953).
A number of studies have shown that when people use a golf club or a famous athlete's racket, their game improves (Lee et al., 2011).
Improvements have been attributed to an increase in self-efficacy, that is, an increase in self-belief (Damisch, Stoberock, & Mussweiler, 2010).
Michio Kaku, a professor of theoretical physics at the City University of New York, believes that both telepathy and telekinesis will soon be available thanks to new technologies (Kaku, 2015).
Musk has even more fantastic plans to achieve with these technologies: control of the smart home, robots, and more; a significant improvement in memory; and a "backup" of consciousness (Fridman, 2024).
Abandon magical thinking for a while, than it will take for him to believe in yet another manifestation of magical reality (Ferrie, 2023).
Tricks and Illusions: The Brain's Deception
A magician might ask, "Do you remember which card you picked?" while looking directly at the spectator. As the spectator looks up to recall the card, their attention shifts away from the deck, providing an opportunity for manipulation (Brown, 2021).
By emphasizing certain elements, the magician creates a "tunnel vision" effect, drawing attention away from the crucial sleight of hand (Brown, 2021).
We see the movements the magician wants us to see, while the actions that mask the true method remain hidden (Macknik et al., 2008).
Magicians understand that "large movements cover small movements," and "if more than one movement is visible, the eyes will follow the larger one" (Yao, Wood, & Simons, 2019).
The famous "Invisible Gorilla" experiment: (Simons & Chabris, 1999).
Further research with eye-tracking technology revealed that people sometimes miss the "gorilla" even when looking directly at it (Memmert, 2006).
Analysis of these accounts suggests that the descriptions became more elaborate and detailed over time, likely due to embellishment and the influence of suggestion (Wiseman & Lamont, 1996).
This suggests that attention, not just visual focus, is the key factor being manipulated (Kuhn & Tatler, 2005).
Magicians exploit this by creating illusory correlations (Macknik et al., 2008). A study where participants were tricked into believing: (Johansson et al., 2005).
10. Imaginary reality
Superpower
Words activate olfactory cortex: (Engen, 1987).
In an experiment by scientists from Erasmus University Rotterdam in the Netherlands, Stephanie Wassenburg and Rolf Zwaan (Wassenburg & Zwaan, 2010).
How We Simulate and Imagine
We have learned a lot recently about exactly how we simulate and imagine: (Kosselyn, Ball, & Reiser, 1978).
When we read or hear phrases such as "Anna turned the ignition key" or "Alexander unscrewed the tank cap,": (Zwaan & Taylor, 2006).
This mismatch consistently increases the signal's amplitude. For example, one experiment (Li et al., 2006) used the following sentence.
In a similar study (Wang et al., 2012), participants were shown jewelry mixed with pictures of nature.
This kind of search for aesthetic markers in the brain continues (de Tommaso et al., 2008; Jacobsen, 2013).
For example: "the road is running," "hard times are coming" (Richardson & Matlock, 2007).
Participants in the experiment (Matlock, 2004) were presented with two different texts.
Vignettes
This text was used to examine the relationship between aggression levels and genetic relatedness: (Gesselman & Webster, 2012).
Only in this case, people "gave" the robot more intelligence and even endowed it with the ability to have fun. As a result, attitudes towards robots in general improved (Tanibe et al., 2017).
Frank's dog was killed by a car: (Geipel et al., 2015).
Typically, people indicate that this is a violation of social norms (Geipel et al., 2015).
Even one such vignette session gives a girl a better chance of avoiding violence (Allen et al., 2017).
The study (Krumhuber et al., 2018) asked people to read a text and then imagine themselves in the shoes of the person against whom the behavioral norms were violated.
The instructions ask you to imagine yourself as one of the actors in the situation: (Clifford et al., 2015).
Perspective in Imagination
That's what they are called - perspective-independent neurons (Burgund & Marsolek, 2000).
Participants in the experiment were given the sentences: (Bergen, 2012).
But it also led to better results if the goal was to gather information about the hotel (Jiang et al., 2014).
If you were reading this book in Arabic or Hebrew, Ann would appear on the right (Maass & Russo, 2003).
Perspective-taking is biologically determined and influenced by the state of the neuronal network and hemispheric dominance (Ruby & Decety, 2001; Vogeley & Fink, 2003).
I am slicing tomatoes," people tend to shift towards the observer perspective (Brunye et al., 2009).
Therefore, sentences with continuous action enhance our simulation of the process, while perfective verb forms enhance our simulation of the end result (Bergen & Wheeler, 2010).
A series of experiments (Macrae et al., 2016) asked students to imagine wearing a T-shirt.
For instance, adopting a third-person perspective can help reduce pain or anticipated pain, compared to a first-person perspective (Christian et al., 2015).
Similarly, adopting a third-person perspective can decrease the desire to consume unhealthy food, as it becomes less appealing when viewed from an external standpoint (Christian et al., 2016).
Pictures in One’s Head
This condition is known as aphantasia. A simple test can assess the vividness of your mental imagery (Grinnell, 2016).
"The interior of Ilya Ilyich's favorite room…” : (Goncharov, 1969).
They prefer dialogue-driven narratives, such as Quentin Tarantino's Kill Bill (Tarantino, 2003).
Words Create Reality
Dr. Benjamin Bergen, a professor at the University of California, San Diego, frequently poses this question to his audience (Bergen, 2012).
While the dog biscuit anecdote may be apocryphal (Sutherland, 2019), research suggests that labeling a product "low fat" can negatively impact its perceived taste, even if the actual taste remains unchanged.
Alia Crum’s experiment: (Crum et al., 2011).
Olfactory Illusions
In 2017, Laudamiel presented attendees at a Boston University symposium on odors with sniff strips containing sulfurole (Laudamiel, 2017).
Rachel Herz, a renowned Canadian-American psychologist and neuroscientist specializing in olfaction, conducted a remarkable study with her student Julia von Clef (Herz & von Clef, 2001).
Trygg Engen, a Norwegian psychologist specializing in olfaction, described a similar phenomenon: (Engen, 1991).
Imagination Changes Reality
In 1910, psychologist Mary Cheves West Perky discovered the Perky effect: (Perky, 1910).
Researchers at the Karolinska Institute in Sweden have further explored the influence of imagination on perception: (Berger & Ehrsson, 2013).
Commentaries of lead researcher Christopher Berger (Berger & Ehrsson, 2013).
Pain
One experiment asked participants to imagine squeezing either a ball or a cactus. Imagining squeezing a cactus activated the brain's pain matrix, leading participants to report discomfort (Wriessnegger et al., 2018).
This simple act of imagination significantly reduced the perceived pain. Remarkably, just two minutes of imagination led to a 40% reduction in pain (Peerdeman et al., 2017).
Imaginary Exercises
One of the most compelling demonstrations of the power of motor imagery comes from the work of Erin Shackell and Lionel Standing: (Shackell & Standing, 2007; Vishton, 2016).
The components of the PETTLEP model in more detail (Holmes & Collins, 2001).
If practicing in the actual environment is not feasible, using visual or auditory cues, such as videos or recordings of the environment, can be helpful (Smith et al., 2007).
For example, when asked about objects mentioned in a story, listeners are quicker to identify those that would have been visible to the protagonist (Horton & Rapp, 2003).
Practical Applications of Imagination
EMDR utilizes eye movements to reduce the intensity of intrusive thoughts and memories associated with trauma (Barrowcliff et al., 2004; Andrade et al., 1997).
Preliminary studies suggest that combining motor imagery with conventional therapy can improve outcomes for individuals with movement disorders following stroke (de Vries & Mulder, 2007).
This suggests that musical imagery can induce a similar flow state as actual improvisation (Vergara et al., 2021).
The concept of state-dependent learning is also relevant here: (Steenbarger, 2018).
A study at Stanford University explored the impact of imagination on motor learning in monkeys (Morris, 2018).
By combining scientific knowledge with the power of imagination, we can potentially influence our health and well-being (Zaraska, 2020).
A study in University of Oakland in New Zealand investigated the effects of motor imagery on recovery: (Rodriguez, 2013).
"Read them fairy tales. And if you want to make them even smarter, read them more fairy tales." (Montana State Libraries, 1954).
Superpower
Words activate olfactory cortex: (Engen, 1987).
In an experiment by scientists from Erasmus University Rotterdam in the Netherlands, Stephanie Wassenburg and Rolf Zwaan (Wassenburg & Zwaan, 2010).
How We Simulate and Imagine
We have learned a lot recently about exactly how we simulate and imagine: (Kosselyn, Ball, & Reiser, 1978).
When we read or hear phrases such as "Anna turned the ignition key" or "Alexander unscrewed the tank cap,": (Zwaan & Taylor, 2006).
This mismatch consistently increases the signal's amplitude. For example, one experiment (Li et al., 2006) used the following sentence.
In a similar study (Wang et al., 2012), participants were shown jewelry mixed with pictures of nature.
This kind of search for aesthetic markers in the brain continues (de Tommaso et al., 2008; Jacobsen, 2013).
For example: "the road is running," "hard times are coming" (Richardson & Matlock, 2007).
Participants in the experiment (Matlock, 2004) were presented with two different texts.
Vignettes
This text was used to examine the relationship between aggression levels and genetic relatedness: (Gesselman & Webster, 2012).
Only in this case, people "gave" the robot more intelligence and even endowed it with the ability to have fun. As a result, attitudes towards robots in general improved (Tanibe et al., 2017).
Frank's dog was killed by a car: (Geipel et al., 2015).
Typically, people indicate that this is a violation of social norms (Geipel et al., 2015).
Even one such vignette session gives a girl a better chance of avoiding violence (Allen et al., 2017).
The study (Krumhuber et al., 2018) asked people to read a text and then imagine themselves in the shoes of the person against whom the behavioral norms were violated.
The instructions ask you to imagine yourself as one of the actors in the situation: (Clifford et al., 2015).
Perspective in Imagination
That's what they are called - perspective-independent neurons (Burgund & Marsolek, 2000).
Participants in the experiment were given the sentences: (Bergen, 2012).
But it also led to better results if the goal was to gather information about the hotel (Jiang et al., 2014).
If you were reading this book in Arabic or Hebrew, Ann would appear on the right (Maass & Russo, 2003).
Perspective-taking is biologically determined and influenced by the state of the neuronal network and hemispheric dominance (Ruby & Decety, 2001; Vogeley & Fink, 2003).
I am slicing tomatoes," people tend to shift towards the observer perspective (Brunye et al., 2009).
Therefore, sentences with continuous action enhance our simulation of the process, while perfective verb forms enhance our simulation of the end result (Bergen & Wheeler, 2010).
A series of experiments (Macrae et al., 2016) asked students to imagine wearing a T-shirt.
For instance, adopting a third-person perspective can help reduce pain or anticipated pain, compared to a first-person perspective (Christian et al., 2015).
Similarly, adopting a third-person perspective can decrease the desire to consume unhealthy food, as it becomes less appealing when viewed from an external standpoint (Christian et al., 2016).
Pictures in One’s Head
This condition is known as aphantasia. A simple test can assess the vividness of your mental imagery (Grinnell, 2016).
"The interior of Ilya Ilyich's favorite room…” : (Goncharov, 1969).
They prefer dialogue-driven narratives, such as Quentin Tarantino's Kill Bill (Tarantino, 2003).
Words Create Reality
Dr. Benjamin Bergen, a professor at the University of California, San Diego, frequently poses this question to his audience (Bergen, 2012).
While the dog biscuit anecdote may be apocryphal (Sutherland, 2019), research suggests that labeling a product "low fat" can negatively impact its perceived taste, even if the actual taste remains unchanged.
Alia Crum’s experiment: (Crum et al., 2011).
Olfactory Illusions
In 2017, Laudamiel presented attendees at a Boston University symposium on odors with sniff strips containing sulfurole (Laudamiel, 2017).
Rachel Herz, a renowned Canadian-American psychologist and neuroscientist specializing in olfaction, conducted a remarkable study with her student Julia von Clef (Herz & von Clef, 2001).
Trygg Engen, a Norwegian psychologist specializing in olfaction, described a similar phenomenon: (Engen, 1991).
Imagination Changes Reality
In 1910, psychologist Mary Cheves West Perky discovered the Perky effect: (Perky, 1910).
Researchers at the Karolinska Institute in Sweden have further explored the influence of imagination on perception: (Berger & Ehrsson, 2013).
Commentaries of lead researcher Christopher Berger (Berger & Ehrsson, 2013).
Pain
One experiment asked participants to imagine squeezing either a ball or a cactus. Imagining squeezing a cactus activated the brain's pain matrix, leading participants to report discomfort (Wriessnegger et al., 2018).
This simple act of imagination significantly reduced the perceived pain. Remarkably, just two minutes of imagination led to a 40% reduction in pain (Peerdeman et al., 2017).
Imaginary Exercises
One of the most compelling demonstrations of the power of motor imagery comes from the work of Erin Shackell and Lionel Standing: (Shackell & Standing, 2007; Vishton, 2016).
The components of the PETTLEP model in more detail (Holmes & Collins, 2001).
If practicing in the actual environment is not feasible, using visual or auditory cues, such as videos or recordings of the environment, can be helpful (Smith et al., 2007).
For example, when asked about objects mentioned in a story, listeners are quicker to identify those that would have been visible to the protagonist (Horton & Rapp, 2003).
Practical Applications of Imagination
EMDR utilizes eye movements to reduce the intensity of intrusive thoughts and memories associated with trauma (Barrowcliff et al., 2004; Andrade et al., 1997).
Preliminary studies suggest that combining motor imagery with conventional therapy can improve outcomes for individuals with movement disorders following stroke (de Vries & Mulder, 2007).
This suggests that musical imagery can induce a similar flow state as actual improvisation (Vergara et al., 2021).
The concept of state-dependent learning is also relevant here: (Steenbarger, 2018).
A study at Stanford University explored the impact of imagination on motor learning in monkeys (Morris, 2018).
By combining scientific knowledge with the power of imagination, we can potentially influence our health and well-being (Zaraska, 2020).
A study in University of Oakland in New Zealand investigated the effects of motor imagery on recovery: (Rodriguez, 2013).
"Read them fairy tales. And if you want to make them even smarter, read them more fairy tales." (Montana State Libraries, 1954).
11. The Dream World
Antti Revonsuo’s citation: Revonsuo & Valli, 2010.
REM Sleep and Brain Activity
According to Alan Hobson, professor of psychiatry and sleep medicine at Harvard University, the task of intrauterine and infant REM sleep is the formation and development of consciousness (Leschziner, 2019).
There is another hypothesis that is difficult to test directly, but it is important for understanding ourselves: Eagleman, 2011.
The Glymphatic System and Sleep
It's hard to believe, but it was only in 2012 that scientists at the Center for Translational Neuromedicine at the University of Rochester Medical Center discovered that our brains circulate not only blood, but also cerebrospinal fluid that carries a host of neurotrophins, BDNF, NGF, CTNF, GDNF and other proteins that keep neurons alive: Iliff et al., 2012.
In a recent study (Winer et al., 2020) it was demonstrated that sleep quality can predict the development of Alzheimer's disease.
As we age, it becomes increasingly difficult to consistently achieve deep slow-wave sleep, so deep sleep should be a top priority (Hablitz et al., 2019).
Clinical evidence shows that daytime sleep increases the risk of Alzheimer's disease. The reason is probably because daytime sleep reduces the depth of nocturnal sleep (Hablitz et al., 2020).
The best position for sleeping is on the side (Lee et al., 2015).
Small doses of single or continuous alcohol intake (0.5 grams per kilogram) improve glymphatic system function (Lundgaard et al., 2018).
In the experiments, scientists were able to improve the quality of deep sleep by switching on pink noise when the stage starts. Perhaps the work of the glymphatic system will also improve (Suzuki et al., 1991; Zhou et al., 2012).
Dreams as Model Optimization
This so interfered with the experiments that none of his fellow scientists wanted to work with Pavlov! (Pavlov, 1927).
Hobson suggests that it is during REM sleep that the thermoregulatory system is "serviced" by switching it off. He draws an analogy to a car "driven" for maintenance (Leschziner, 2019).
Matthew Walker, renowned sleep researcher and bestselling author of Why We Sleep(Walker, 2017) suggests that REM sleep provides "nocturnal therapy".
American psychiatrist and dream researcher Allan Hobson and colleagues (Hobson, Hong, & Friston, 2014) suggest that the function of REM sleep is tuning learning, during which the brain removes unnecessary neural connections formed during the day.
Dream Interpretation
While Freud had a well-known bias in favor of sex: (Kelleher, 2001).
The level of violence and murder in dreams is higher than in the worst place on Earth, so the situation is quite normal (Wiseman, 2014).
Belief in life after death, ghosts, demons, and communication with the dead has been found to be associated with poor sleep quality (Rauf et al., 2022).
William Dement’s dream of cancer: (Dement & Vaughan, 1999).
Lucid Dreams
Keith Hearn of the University of Hull in England found brilliant confirmation of the existence of lucid dreams on 5 April 1975 (Hearne, 1978).
20% of people experience a conscious dream once a month (Schredl & Erlacher, 2011).
Lucid dreams differ from normal sleep and wakefulness (Voss et al., 2012).
Lucid dreams activate the prefrontal cortex and exhibit gamma activity, similar to meditation (Lutz et al., 2004).
Hobson considers conscious dreaming to be a unique state: (Kingsland, 2019).
There is another interesting fact: while ordinary dreams are most often populated by acquaintances, friends, and family members, conscious dreams are more often populated by strangers (Wiseman, 2014).
Lucid dream induction techniques: (Jarrett, 2021).
Antti Revonsuo’s citation: Revonsuo & Valli, 2010.
REM Sleep and Brain Activity
According to Alan Hobson, professor of psychiatry and sleep medicine at Harvard University, the task of intrauterine and infant REM sleep is the formation and development of consciousness (Leschziner, 2019).
There is another hypothesis that is difficult to test directly, but it is important for understanding ourselves: Eagleman, 2011.
The Glymphatic System and Sleep
It's hard to believe, but it was only in 2012 that scientists at the Center for Translational Neuromedicine at the University of Rochester Medical Center discovered that our brains circulate not only blood, but also cerebrospinal fluid that carries a host of neurotrophins, BDNF, NGF, CTNF, GDNF and other proteins that keep neurons alive: Iliff et al., 2012.
In a recent study (Winer et al., 2020) it was demonstrated that sleep quality can predict the development of Alzheimer's disease.
As we age, it becomes increasingly difficult to consistently achieve deep slow-wave sleep, so deep sleep should be a top priority (Hablitz et al., 2019).
Clinical evidence shows that daytime sleep increases the risk of Alzheimer's disease. The reason is probably because daytime sleep reduces the depth of nocturnal sleep (Hablitz et al., 2020).
The best position for sleeping is on the side (Lee et al., 2015).
Small doses of single or continuous alcohol intake (0.5 grams per kilogram) improve glymphatic system function (Lundgaard et al., 2018).
In the experiments, scientists were able to improve the quality of deep sleep by switching on pink noise when the stage starts. Perhaps the work of the glymphatic system will also improve (Suzuki et al., 1991; Zhou et al., 2012).
Dreams as Model Optimization
This so interfered with the experiments that none of his fellow scientists wanted to work with Pavlov! (Pavlov, 1927).
Hobson suggests that it is during REM sleep that the thermoregulatory system is "serviced" by switching it off. He draws an analogy to a car "driven" for maintenance (Leschziner, 2019).
Matthew Walker, renowned sleep researcher and bestselling author of Why We Sleep(Walker, 2017) suggests that REM sleep provides "nocturnal therapy".
American psychiatrist and dream researcher Allan Hobson and colleagues (Hobson, Hong, & Friston, 2014) suggest that the function of REM sleep is tuning learning, during which the brain removes unnecessary neural connections formed during the day.
Dream Interpretation
While Freud had a well-known bias in favor of sex: (Kelleher, 2001).
The level of violence and murder in dreams is higher than in the worst place on Earth, so the situation is quite normal (Wiseman, 2014).
Belief in life after death, ghosts, demons, and communication with the dead has been found to be associated with poor sleep quality (Rauf et al., 2022).
William Dement’s dream of cancer: (Dement & Vaughan, 1999).
Lucid Dreams
Keith Hearn of the University of Hull in England found brilliant confirmation of the existence of lucid dreams on 5 April 1975 (Hearne, 1978).
20% of people experience a conscious dream once a month (Schredl & Erlacher, 2011).
Lucid dreams differ from normal sleep and wakefulness (Voss et al., 2012).
Lucid dreams activate the prefrontal cortex and exhibit gamma activity, similar to meditation (Lutz et al., 2004).
Hobson considers conscious dreaming to be a unique state: (Kingsland, 2019).
There is another interesting fact: while ordinary dreams are most often populated by acquaintances, friends, and family members, conscious dreams are more often populated by strangers (Wiseman, 2014).
Lucid dream induction techniques: (Jarrett, 2021).
12. The Reality of the Past
Event Density
According to Physics Professor Adrian Bejan of Duke University, the perception of time accelerating with age is due to the brain's neuronal networks becoming more complex (Bejan, 2019).
Examples of instant gratification:
● Pay someone an unexpected compliment;
● Have a candlelight dinner;
● Remember something funny and laugh;
● Watch videos and photos of pleasant events;
● Tidy up the desk/shelf;
● Start watching a long-awaited or great film;
● Watch the clouds;
● Rinse your face with cold water;
● Make the bed with fresh linen;
● Pet a cat or a dog;
● Lie on the floor and relax;
● Put scented cream on your hands;
● Massage/scratch your head;
● Walk barefoot;
● Dance to your favorite song;
● To smell your favorite scent;
● Eat a piece of chocolate;
● Have that first sip of espresso in the morning;
Several studies have indicated correlations between birth month and various life outcomes: (Ambridge, 2014).
Recruiting for hockey leagues (in Canada, anyway) happens at the beginning of the year, and a young hockey player has to be a full six years old (Gladwell, (2008).
False Memories
Do we look at our life story with the same wisdom? (McRaney, 2011).
A classic study by Elizabeth Loftus (Loftus & Pickrell, 1995) showed a mechanism for introducing false memories.
The phenomenon of false memories seemed so incredible that many experiments were conducted and are still being conducted: (Schmolck et al., 2000).
US President Ronald Reagan once told the Israeli Prime Minister that during World War II he served in the US Army Film Production Corps and he and his comrades filmed the liberation of concentration camp prisoners in Germany (Brinker, 2015).
During the 2008 presidential race, Hillary Clinton said in a speech that during her 1996 Balkan visit, the plane had to land in Bosnia and the delegation miraculously escaped gunfire (Walker, 2015).
Upon reviewing video evidence, Clinton acknowledged the inaccuracies in her account (Kessler, 2016).
In a witty study involving more than a thousand participants from Singapore and Beijing, researchers tested people on general knowledge and then gave them feedback (Chew et al., 2020).
How to Change the Past to Transform the Present
Attempts began to influence behavior in the present by implanting past events (Bernstein et al., 2005).
People have been persuaded that they loved going to the dentist when they were children so that they would not be afraid to go to the dentist now (Loftus, 1997).
Many such successful experiments have formed a method called false memory therapy (Bjorklund, 2000; Marsh & Bower, 2004).
A study by Danish researchers (Köhler-Forsberg et al., 2019) examined data from more than one million people, looking for a link between infectious and psychiatric illnesses.
We know that a poor childhood leads to tectonic changes in health, DNA and life in general (McDade, 2019).
Scientists suggest: this early exposure to cortisol increases the risks that the child will later suffer from anxiety, depression, and other mental problems (Gatzke-Kopp, & Creavey, 2017).
They notice features in brain development in children who have experienced maternal financial stress while still in utero (Lu et al., 2021).
A small almond-shaped body is associated with high anxiety and increased risk of depression in children and adolescents (Hu et al., 2020).
Poverty can affect intelligence - it doesn't always do so, but scientists have observed the trend (Noble et al., 2015).
The life of a child who was an outcast and a child who was adored by everyone in kindergarten will certainly be different (Prinstein, 2017).
For example, in one experiment, participants were asked to recall something positive from their childhood, just for a couple of minutes (Speer & Delgado, 2017).
"If we see our past in a more positive light than how things really were, it gives us a more positive image of ourselves, and leads to more positive relationships with others and the maintenance of healthy social connections," says psychology professor Mark Howe (Ball, 2018).
Event Density
According to Physics Professor Adrian Bejan of Duke University, the perception of time accelerating with age is due to the brain's neuronal networks becoming more complex (Bejan, 2019).
Examples of instant gratification:
● Pay someone an unexpected compliment;
● Have a candlelight dinner;
● Remember something funny and laugh;
● Watch videos and photos of pleasant events;
● Tidy up the desk/shelf;
● Start watching a long-awaited or great film;
● Watch the clouds;
● Rinse your face with cold water;
● Make the bed with fresh linen;
● Pet a cat or a dog;
● Lie on the floor and relax;
● Put scented cream on your hands;
● Massage/scratch your head;
● Walk barefoot;
● Dance to your favorite song;
● To smell your favorite scent;
● Eat a piece of chocolate;
● Have that first sip of espresso in the morning;
Several studies have indicated correlations between birth month and various life outcomes: (Ambridge, 2014).
Recruiting for hockey leagues (in Canada, anyway) happens at the beginning of the year, and a young hockey player has to be a full six years old (Gladwell, (2008).
False Memories
Do we look at our life story with the same wisdom? (McRaney, 2011).
A classic study by Elizabeth Loftus (Loftus & Pickrell, 1995) showed a mechanism for introducing false memories.
The phenomenon of false memories seemed so incredible that many experiments were conducted and are still being conducted: (Schmolck et al., 2000).
US President Ronald Reagan once told the Israeli Prime Minister that during World War II he served in the US Army Film Production Corps and he and his comrades filmed the liberation of concentration camp prisoners in Germany (Brinker, 2015).
During the 2008 presidential race, Hillary Clinton said in a speech that during her 1996 Balkan visit, the plane had to land in Bosnia and the delegation miraculously escaped gunfire (Walker, 2015).
Upon reviewing video evidence, Clinton acknowledged the inaccuracies in her account (Kessler, 2016).
In a witty study involving more than a thousand participants from Singapore and Beijing, researchers tested people on general knowledge and then gave them feedback (Chew et al., 2020).
How to Change the Past to Transform the Present
Attempts began to influence behavior in the present by implanting past events (Bernstein et al., 2005).
People have been persuaded that they loved going to the dentist when they were children so that they would not be afraid to go to the dentist now (Loftus, 1997).
Many such successful experiments have formed a method called false memory therapy (Bjorklund, 2000; Marsh & Bower, 2004).
A study by Danish researchers (Köhler-Forsberg et al., 2019) examined data from more than one million people, looking for a link between infectious and psychiatric illnesses.
We know that a poor childhood leads to tectonic changes in health, DNA and life in general (McDade, 2019).
Scientists suggest: this early exposure to cortisol increases the risks that the child will later suffer from anxiety, depression, and other mental problems (Gatzke-Kopp, & Creavey, 2017).
They notice features in brain development in children who have experienced maternal financial stress while still in utero (Lu et al., 2021).
A small almond-shaped body is associated with high anxiety and increased risk of depression in children and adolescents (Hu et al., 2020).
Poverty can affect intelligence - it doesn't always do so, but scientists have observed the trend (Noble et al., 2015).
The life of a child who was an outcast and a child who was adored by everyone in kindergarten will certainly be different (Prinstein, 2017).
For example, in one experiment, participants were asked to recall something positive from their childhood, just for a couple of minutes (Speer & Delgado, 2017).
"If we see our past in a more positive light than how things really were, it gives us a more positive image of ourselves, and leads to more positive relationships with others and the maintenance of healthy social connections," says psychology professor Mark Howe (Ball, 2018).
13. The Reality of the Future
"Whatever you're meant to do, do it now.
The conditions are always impossible."
— Doris Lessing, writer
Quote of Doris Lessing: https://www.goodreads.com/quotes/50458-whatever-you-re-meant-to-do-do-it-now-the-conditions
Perception of Time
In the language of the Amondawa tribe in the Amazon, there is no word for time, month, or year (Hammond, 2012).
Long ago, the villagers of Marsden in Yorkshire, England, noticed a cycle: when the cuckoo arrives and begins to cuckoo, spring is coming; the days are warm and sunny (Niedzviecki, 2015).
It seems that all our technological and social innovations are aimed at preserving the status quo, at convincing us that everything will be as it was before (Niedzviecki, 2015).
Plans for Happiness
Another study found that we think about the future, on average, 60 times a day, or every 16 minutes (D'Argembeau, Renaud, & Van der Linden, 2011).
Martin Seligman, a professor of psychology at the University of Pennsylvania, suggests that "Homo prospectus—prospective man" would be a more fitting name for our species (Seligman & Tierney, 2017).
How to Dream Right
Numerous studies demonstrate that effective daydreaming requires practice (Wilson et al., 2019).
Faced with this challenge, scientists seeking effective daydreaming techniques discovered a lack of existing practices. They conducted their own research (Westgate et al., 2021).
As Harvard psychologist Daniel Gilbert observed (Gilbert, 2009): "The greatest achievement of the human brain is its ability to imagine objects and episodes that do not exist in the realm of the real, and it is this ability that allows us to think about the future."
Expanding on this, philosopher Daniel Dennett (Dennett, 2008) notes that the human brain is an "anticipation machine," and "making future" is its primary function.
Default Network
Experimental studies indicate that proficiency in this mode correlates with enhanced intellectual and creative abilities, as well as increased brain efficiency (Godwin et al., 2017).
Notably, similar brain activity patterns occur when thinking about these three topics (Spreng & Grady, 2010).
Imagining the Future and Remembering the Past Are Interconnected
These cultural scripts serve as brain shortcuts, providing expected pleasures without extensive cognitive effort on abstract scenarios (Back, 2017).
Studies show that temporal lobe damage impairs both past recall and detailed future visualization (Seligman & Tierney, 2017).
CT scans reveal that recalling past events activates brain regions that integrate "what," "when," and "where" information (Gaesser et al., 2013).
Interestingly, the same brain patterns occur when imagining new scenes (Schacter & Addis, 2007). Thus, the brain constructs the future using building blocks from the past.
In Homo Prospectus, psychologists pose thought-provoking questions (Seligman et al., 2016).
A Fictional History
Traditional history recounts events, but focusing solely on actual outcomes risks hindsight bias, the belief that events were inevitable (Tetlock et al., 2006).
Similarly, the founder of the Chinese Qing Empire stated that "to enter a battle is like throwing dice: they can fall at will" (Tetlock et al., 2006).
This restraint likely stemmed from his own WWI trench experiences, witnessing the agony and death caused by gas (Labatut, 2020).
Theories of Ability
"Reflection changes reality"—this statement, while reminiscent of Louise Hay's writings, is supported by scientific evidence (Kappes et al., 2013).
Mental Contrast
About mental contrast see book Rethinking positive thinking: Inside the new science of motivation by Gabriele Oettingen (2015) and articles: Kappes et al., 2013; Sevincer & Oettingen, 2013; Sevincer et al., 2014; Sevincer et al., 2014b).
Expectations
However, subjective belief in the superior quality of vinyl enhances enjoyment, regardless of actual sound fidelity (Enstroem & Schmaltz, 2022).
Individuals from Western cultures tend to spatially represent the past on the left and the future on the right (Christman & Pinger, 1997).
Advertisers exploit this tendency, effectively placing "before" images on the left and "after" images on the right for products promising progress, such as weight loss or wrinkle reduction (Chae & Hoegg, 2013).
As Harvard psychologist Daniel Gilbert observed, "We find it hard to imagine who we will be in the future, and then we mistakenly think that if it's hard to imagine, it probably won't happen" (Gilbert, 2009).
Retrospection of the Future
This method proves particularly effective for complex tasks (Park et al., 2017).
The Premortem technique is analogous to a 'prospective autopsy'. It entails imagining a project's failure and identifying contributing factors, thereby mitigating overconfidence (Klein, 2007).
The Technique of Implementation Intention
A technique based on a century-old principle, Implementation Intention, also known as instant habit formation, has demonstrated experimental efficacy (Gollwitzer, 1993, 1999; Orbell et al., 1997; Gollwitzer & Schaal, 1998; Gollwitzer et al., 2005; Sheeran et al., 2005).
For example, participants utilizing the formula "If the opponent makes an argument, I instantly find a great answer" excelled in discussions despite unknown arguments (Gollwitzer & Brandstätter, 1997).
The technique even functions with subliminal stimuli; that is, when we do not consciously realize what is happening (Gollwitzer & Brandstätter, 1997).
Future Regret
Studies have found that when people lose the ability to regret their actions (in the case of injury or brain disease), they make more errors in their choices (Camille et al., 2004; Coricelli et al., 2007).
Daniel Pink, an American writer, became interested in regret due to his own experiences. His interest led to research and the publication of "The Power of Regret" (Pink, 2022).
We avoid regret by reflecting on present choices and mentally envisioning future regrets (Hoerl & Mccormack, 2016).
Australian nurse Bronnie Ware wrote "The Top Five Regrets of Dying People," based on conversations with terminally ill patients in hospice care (Ware, 2012; Steiner, 2012).
The End-of-history illusion
This is a common phenomenon known as the End-of-history illusion (Quoidbach et al., 2013).
However, the illusory nature of underestimating change was recently confirmed in an experiment with a patient with long-term amnesia (Halilova, Addis, & Rosenbaum, 2020).
Umberto Eco observation: (Beyer, 2009).
We Know More About the World Than We Realize
A study by Genevsky et al. (2017) explored how brain activity correlates with predicting successful crowdfunding campaigns.
Inspired by these results, researchers trained algorithms to detect broader brain patterns, achieving a 67% prediction accuracy in subsequent experiments (Thomson, 2017).
Personal Probabilities
Personal probabilities questions are adapted from studies of fortunate individuals (Wiseman, 2003).
It is worthwhile to examine four key characteristics of "lucky" individuals, as identified through research (Wiseman, 2003).
They refrain from premature judgments of others, a practice supported by Malcolm Gladwell's book "Talking to Strangers," (Gladwell, 2019).
What Future Reality are We Considering?
This tendency has been termed "futuristic short-sightedness" (Thorstad & Wolff, 2018).
In an insightful experiment (Davies, 2019), participants were asked to imagine a future car accident and describe it.
As philosopher and writer Alain de Botton pointed out, when we envision our desired future, we must observe closely: we may either fail to see ourselves or perceive an idealized, dissimilar image (De Botton, 2008).
Who is Your Favorite Fictional Character?
Anthropologist Donald Horton and sociologist Richard Wohl coined the term "parasocial relationships": (Horton & Wohl, 1956).
It has been found that the criteria for realism are sympathy and similarity to us (Gardner & Knowles, 2008).
A Rosy Past
By envisioning the future, we can even alter our perception of the past (Devitt & Schacter, 2018).
Techniques for Working with the Future
The Futures Wheel
“The Futures Wheel" exercise, proposed in the 1970s by futurist Joel Barker (Greenberg, 2021).
10 Techniques for Changing Yourself and Your Behavior
Without extensive deliberation, answer the following questions regarding your use of these techniques:
Scoring:
● Award 1 point for each "Yes" answer to questions 1, 3, 5, 7, and 9.
● Award 1 point for each "No" answer to questions 2, 4, 6, 8, and 10.
● Total your points.
● A score above 7 is considered good. A score of 10 indicates optimal application of these techniques.
A study by Richard Wisemanm described in his book 59 seconds (2009) involving over 5,000 participants worldwide examined the techniques used to achieve goals. The study, conducted over one year, found that only 10% of participants achieved their goals.
The study revealed that certain popular techniques are ineffective, while others significantly increase the probability of success. The ineffective techniques correspond to the even-numbered questions in the test.
The effective techniques, corresponding to the odd-numbered questions, are detailed below:
● Create a step-by-step plan: Break down large goals into smaller, achievable sub-goals, eliminating fear and doubt.
● Tell other people about your goal: Publicly stating your goals increases accountability.
● Think of all the good consequences when you reach your goal: This provides motivation.
● Reward yourself for every step towards your goal: Reinforce positive behavior by rewarding yourself for progress, which will encourage continued effort.
● Record your progress: Tracking progress has been repeatedly shown to be beneficial.
Meeting with Your Past Self
Imagine meeting your past self, 10, 20, or 30 years ago, via a time machine. After convincing your past self of your identity, engage in a conversation. What advice would you offer? What decisions would you encourage or discourage?
This exercise can evoke strong emotions and generate valuable insights. It may require multiple sessions, as if continuing a conversation in a parallel world.
Individuals who practice this exercise often find themselves returning to it, driven by a desire to provide reassurance and guidance to their younger selves.
While acknowledging the imaginary nature of this dialogue, engaging in self-dialogue can unlock significant personal abilities.
Meeting a Traveler from Your Future Self
Shift your perspective and imagine meeting your future self. Recreate your past habits and interests to connect with your younger self.
Engage in a candid conversation to learn about future possibilities and guidance.
Recording the conversation can capture valuable insights.
Our brains possess more knowledge than we realize. Self-observation can help us understand our motives and develop trust in our intuition.
"Whatever you're meant to do, do it now.
The conditions are always impossible."
— Doris Lessing, writer
Quote of Doris Lessing: https://www.goodreads.com/quotes/50458-whatever-you-re-meant-to-do-do-it-now-the-conditions
Perception of Time
In the language of the Amondawa tribe in the Amazon, there is no word for time, month, or year (Hammond, 2012).
Long ago, the villagers of Marsden in Yorkshire, England, noticed a cycle: when the cuckoo arrives and begins to cuckoo, spring is coming; the days are warm and sunny (Niedzviecki, 2015).
It seems that all our technological and social innovations are aimed at preserving the status quo, at convincing us that everything will be as it was before (Niedzviecki, 2015).
Plans for Happiness
Another study found that we think about the future, on average, 60 times a day, or every 16 minutes (D'Argembeau, Renaud, & Van der Linden, 2011).
Martin Seligman, a professor of psychology at the University of Pennsylvania, suggests that "Homo prospectus—prospective man" would be a more fitting name for our species (Seligman & Tierney, 2017).
How to Dream Right
Numerous studies demonstrate that effective daydreaming requires practice (Wilson et al., 2019).
Faced with this challenge, scientists seeking effective daydreaming techniques discovered a lack of existing practices. They conducted their own research (Westgate et al., 2021).
As Harvard psychologist Daniel Gilbert observed (Gilbert, 2009): "The greatest achievement of the human brain is its ability to imagine objects and episodes that do not exist in the realm of the real, and it is this ability that allows us to think about the future."
Expanding on this, philosopher Daniel Dennett (Dennett, 2008) notes that the human brain is an "anticipation machine," and "making future" is its primary function.
Default Network
Experimental studies indicate that proficiency in this mode correlates with enhanced intellectual and creative abilities, as well as increased brain efficiency (Godwin et al., 2017).
Notably, similar brain activity patterns occur when thinking about these three topics (Spreng & Grady, 2010).
Imagining the Future and Remembering the Past Are Interconnected
These cultural scripts serve as brain shortcuts, providing expected pleasures without extensive cognitive effort on abstract scenarios (Back, 2017).
Studies show that temporal lobe damage impairs both past recall and detailed future visualization (Seligman & Tierney, 2017).
CT scans reveal that recalling past events activates brain regions that integrate "what," "when," and "where" information (Gaesser et al., 2013).
Interestingly, the same brain patterns occur when imagining new scenes (Schacter & Addis, 2007). Thus, the brain constructs the future using building blocks from the past.
In Homo Prospectus, psychologists pose thought-provoking questions (Seligman et al., 2016).
A Fictional History
Traditional history recounts events, but focusing solely on actual outcomes risks hindsight bias, the belief that events were inevitable (Tetlock et al., 2006).
Similarly, the founder of the Chinese Qing Empire stated that "to enter a battle is like throwing dice: they can fall at will" (Tetlock et al., 2006).
This restraint likely stemmed from his own WWI trench experiences, witnessing the agony and death caused by gas (Labatut, 2020).
Theories of Ability
"Reflection changes reality"—this statement, while reminiscent of Louise Hay's writings, is supported by scientific evidence (Kappes et al., 2013).
Mental Contrast
About mental contrast see book Rethinking positive thinking: Inside the new science of motivation by Gabriele Oettingen (2015) and articles: Kappes et al., 2013; Sevincer & Oettingen, 2013; Sevincer et al., 2014; Sevincer et al., 2014b).
Expectations
However, subjective belief in the superior quality of vinyl enhances enjoyment, regardless of actual sound fidelity (Enstroem & Schmaltz, 2022).
Individuals from Western cultures tend to spatially represent the past on the left and the future on the right (Christman & Pinger, 1997).
Advertisers exploit this tendency, effectively placing "before" images on the left and "after" images on the right for products promising progress, such as weight loss or wrinkle reduction (Chae & Hoegg, 2013).
As Harvard psychologist Daniel Gilbert observed, "We find it hard to imagine who we will be in the future, and then we mistakenly think that if it's hard to imagine, it probably won't happen" (Gilbert, 2009).
Retrospection of the Future
This method proves particularly effective for complex tasks (Park et al., 2017).
The Premortem technique is analogous to a 'prospective autopsy'. It entails imagining a project's failure and identifying contributing factors, thereby mitigating overconfidence (Klein, 2007).
The Technique of Implementation Intention
A technique based on a century-old principle, Implementation Intention, also known as instant habit formation, has demonstrated experimental efficacy (Gollwitzer, 1993, 1999; Orbell et al., 1997; Gollwitzer & Schaal, 1998; Gollwitzer et al., 2005; Sheeran et al., 2005).
For example, participants utilizing the formula "If the opponent makes an argument, I instantly find a great answer" excelled in discussions despite unknown arguments (Gollwitzer & Brandstätter, 1997).
The technique even functions with subliminal stimuli; that is, when we do not consciously realize what is happening (Gollwitzer & Brandstätter, 1997).
Future Regret
Studies have found that when people lose the ability to regret their actions (in the case of injury or brain disease), they make more errors in their choices (Camille et al., 2004; Coricelli et al., 2007).
Daniel Pink, an American writer, became interested in regret due to his own experiences. His interest led to research and the publication of "The Power of Regret" (Pink, 2022).
We avoid regret by reflecting on present choices and mentally envisioning future regrets (Hoerl & Mccormack, 2016).
Australian nurse Bronnie Ware wrote "The Top Five Regrets of Dying People," based on conversations with terminally ill patients in hospice care (Ware, 2012; Steiner, 2012).
The End-of-history illusion
This is a common phenomenon known as the End-of-history illusion (Quoidbach et al., 2013).
However, the illusory nature of underestimating change was recently confirmed in an experiment with a patient with long-term amnesia (Halilova, Addis, & Rosenbaum, 2020).
Umberto Eco observation: (Beyer, 2009).
We Know More About the World Than We Realize
A study by Genevsky et al. (2017) explored how brain activity correlates with predicting successful crowdfunding campaigns.
Inspired by these results, researchers trained algorithms to detect broader brain patterns, achieving a 67% prediction accuracy in subsequent experiments (Thomson, 2017).
Personal Probabilities
Personal probabilities questions are adapted from studies of fortunate individuals (Wiseman, 2003).
It is worthwhile to examine four key characteristics of "lucky" individuals, as identified through research (Wiseman, 2003).
They refrain from premature judgments of others, a practice supported by Malcolm Gladwell's book "Talking to Strangers," (Gladwell, 2019).
What Future Reality are We Considering?
This tendency has been termed "futuristic short-sightedness" (Thorstad & Wolff, 2018).
In an insightful experiment (Davies, 2019), participants were asked to imagine a future car accident and describe it.
As philosopher and writer Alain de Botton pointed out, when we envision our desired future, we must observe closely: we may either fail to see ourselves or perceive an idealized, dissimilar image (De Botton, 2008).
Who is Your Favorite Fictional Character?
Anthropologist Donald Horton and sociologist Richard Wohl coined the term "parasocial relationships": (Horton & Wohl, 1956).
It has been found that the criteria for realism are sympathy and similarity to us (Gardner & Knowles, 2008).
A Rosy Past
By envisioning the future, we can even alter our perception of the past (Devitt & Schacter, 2018).
Techniques for Working with the Future
The Futures Wheel
“The Futures Wheel" exercise, proposed in the 1970s by futurist Joel Barker (Greenberg, 2021).
10 Techniques for Changing Yourself and Your Behavior
Without extensive deliberation, answer the following questions regarding your use of these techniques:
N | Technique | Yes | No |
1 | Create a step-by-step plan |
|
|
2 | Motivate yourself by focusing on someone you respect for achievement |
|
|
3 | Tell other people about your goal |
|
|
4 | Think of all the bad consequences if you don't achieve your goal |
|
|
5 | Think of all the good consequences when you reach your goal |
|
|
6 | Try to suppress unwanted thoughts |
|
|
7 | Reward yourself for every step towards your goal |
|
|
8 | Rely on willpower |
|
|
9 | Record your progress in a journal or on a graph |
|
|
10 | Dream about how beautiful your life will be when you reach your goal |
|
|
Scoring:
● Award 1 point for each "Yes" answer to questions 1, 3, 5, 7, and 9.
● Award 1 point for each "No" answer to questions 2, 4, 6, 8, and 10.
● Total your points.
● A score above 7 is considered good. A score of 10 indicates optimal application of these techniques.
A study by Richard Wisemanm described in his book 59 seconds (2009) involving over 5,000 participants worldwide examined the techniques used to achieve goals. The study, conducted over one year, found that only 10% of participants achieved their goals.
The study revealed that certain popular techniques are ineffective, while others significantly increase the probability of success. The ineffective techniques correspond to the even-numbered questions in the test.
The effective techniques, corresponding to the odd-numbered questions, are detailed below:
● Create a step-by-step plan: Break down large goals into smaller, achievable sub-goals, eliminating fear and doubt.
● Tell other people about your goal: Publicly stating your goals increases accountability.
● Think of all the good consequences when you reach your goal: This provides motivation.
● Reward yourself for every step towards your goal: Reinforce positive behavior by rewarding yourself for progress, which will encourage continued effort.
● Record your progress: Tracking progress has been repeatedly shown to be beneficial.
Meeting with Your Past Self
Imagine meeting your past self, 10, 20, or 30 years ago, via a time machine. After convincing your past self of your identity, engage in a conversation. What advice would you offer? What decisions would you encourage or discourage?
This exercise can evoke strong emotions and generate valuable insights. It may require multiple sessions, as if continuing a conversation in a parallel world.
Individuals who practice this exercise often find themselves returning to it, driven by a desire to provide reassurance and guidance to their younger selves.
While acknowledging the imaginary nature of this dialogue, engaging in self-dialogue can unlock significant personal abilities.
Meeting a Traveler from Your Future Self
Shift your perspective and imagine meeting your future self. Recreate your past habits and interests to connect with your younger self.
Engage in a candid conversation to learn about future possibilities and guidance.
Recording the conversation can capture valuable insights.
Our brains possess more knowledge than we realize. Self-observation can help us understand our motives and develop trust in our intuition.
14. Free Will and Morality
Quote of Isaac Bashevis-Singer: https://www.goodreads.com/quotes/746608-we-must-believe-in-free-will-we-have-no-choice
In 1998, neuroscientist Christoph Koch wagered with philosopher David Chalmers. Koch claimed that within 25 years, science would answer the question of human consciousness, and by 2023, the mechanism by which brain neurons generate it would be discovered: (Wnuk, 2023).
The 'hard problem of consciousness,' formulated by David Chalmers in 1994, addresses why and how we have subjective experience, which remains unknown (Chalmers, 1995).
Reality as History
The human mind tends to perceive reality as a narrative, often casting oneself as a protagonist with strong moral principles, thus framing experiences within a context of heroism, morality, and the pursuit of justice (Sutton, 2022).
Confabulation, the brain's process of constructing a narrative to derive meaning from diverse neural signals, is a key example of this tendency (Eagleman, 2011).
Christos Behlivanidis, an associate professor at University College, notes that this occurs "when praying or hoping for the outcome of something that has already happened" (Dolan, 2022).
In three experiments involving 607 participants, Behlivanidis et al. (2022) explored this concept through domino-like collisions displayed on a monitor.
If one believes that an impact is necessary for an object to break, that is what will be perceived, "even if by some crazy coincidence the events happen in a different order" (Dolan, 2022).
Behlivanidis suggests that "we perceive causes in the same way we perceive color or depth" (Dolan, 2022).
Free Will
A year later, they returned, coinciding with the discovery of a new tumor (Burns & Swerdlow, 2003).
Similarly, a respected 64-year-old pediatrician, married for 40 years with two children, suddenly became a pedophile and was apprehended for committing lewd acts against a young girl (Sartori et al., 2016).
Sam Harris observed that a profound realization of the absence of free will would diminish our capacity for hatred. How can one hate an individual who is not the master of their actions? (Burkeman, 2021).
Morals
Conversely, virtuous actions are seen as authentic expressions of our character (Love, 2021).
This asymmetry is evident in the tendency to attribute our positive qualities to our inherent nature, while attributing others' negative qualities to their choices (Lebowitz et al., 2022).
The products we consume, from athletic shoes to seafood, are often produced under ethically questionable conditions (Schur, 2022).
A group of psychologists, led by Professor Jonathan Haidt from the University of Virginia, proposed the theory of moral foundations (Haidt, 2012).
Twin studies (Zakharin & Bates, 2022) indicate a substantial genetic basis for these foundations, with heredity accounting for 40-66% of their variation.
When offered a fair division of money, participants often suspected a computer (Waytz et al., 2010).
We tend to perceive entities that move at human speeds as more intelligent (Dennett, 2008).
Conversely, entities that move too quickly or too slowly are often perceived as less intelligent (Morewedge et al., 2007).
Thus, it is preferable to be a hare than a tortoise, but not a cockroach or a fly (Wegner & Gray, 2017).
Walking speed declines with age, and the rate of decline is a strong predictor of mortality (White et al., 2013).
Maintaining a walking speed of at least 1 meter per second after the age of 65 is advisable (Meyer et al., 2021).
Children who grow into slow-walking adults tend to have lower IQ scores (Rasmussen et al., 2019).
The Neurobiology of Free Will
In the 1960s, Luder Deecke and Hans Helmut Kornhuber, scientists at the University of Freiburg, made a groundbreaking discovery: (Kornhuber & Deecke,
Libet proposed that the readiness potential was a neural precursor to conscious decision-making (Libet, 2009).
Some were convinced that free will was an illusion, while others sought alternative interpretations to preserve the concept of free will (Libet, 2009).
Daniel Wegner and Talia Wheatley of the University of Virginia conducted experiments purportedly examining the sensation of intentional action (Wegner & Wheatley, 1999).
In 2010, French scientists Eren Schurger, Jacobo Sitt, and Stanislaw Dehaene proposed an alternative interpretation of the readiness potential, suggesting it represents not a decision-making signal but rather random neuronal activity, or "noise": (Schurger, Sitt, & Dehaene, 2012; Gholipour, 2019).
Christoph Koch and his colleagues conducted a variation of Libet's experiment: (Maoz et al., 2012).
Swiss scientists have also demonstrated that pupil dilation can predict choices before conscious awareness (Li, 2020).
Psychologist Azim Shariff described an experiment where students were divided into two groups (World Science Festival, 2015).
Recently, a research program (https://neurophil-freewill.org) funded by two private foundations brought together 17 neuroscientists and philosophers with seven million dollars to investigate the questions, "What does it take to have free will? And do we have it?"
Good and Evil
The Tunebo people of Colombia's misty forests hold a belief that twins attract misfortune. If a woman gives birth to twins, the tradition dictates that one or both infants should be killed (Stewart-Williams, 2018).
For instance, individuals can sustain a weight on an outstretched arm for longer durations after donating to charity (Gray, 2010).
Similarly, participation in charitable marathons enhances performance, and assisting colleagues improves individual productivity (Grant, 2013).
Notably, the described acts of evil were not trivial; one participant detailed a violent assault. (Wegner & Gray, 2017).
British writer Neil Gaiman has highlighted the significant influence of the private prison industry in the United States (Gaiman, 2013).
English evolutionary biologist Richard Dawkins has offered a stark perspective on good and evil: (Dawkins, 2008).
Until 1999, Bhutan was the only nation without television. Following the king's decision to introduce television, Bhutanese society was exposed to 46 channels of fictional content (Scott-Clark & Levy, 2003).
Dawkins further states, "Nature is neither good nor evil. She is neither against suffering nor in favor of it. She is not interested in it in any way, unless it has to do with DNA survival" (Dawkins, 2008).
Moral Status
Neuroscientist and philosopher Sam Harris recounted a debate with Rick Warren, a prominent American preacher and author of The Meaning Driven Life, which for a period was the best-selling book of all time (Newsweek Web Exclusive, 2007).
During the discussion, Warren stated, "If the Bible were fiction, I would rape and kill people" (Harris & Gervais. 2020).
Despite higher levels of poverty and mortality compared to contemporary society, this era was characterized by a widespread belief that "to be born English meant winning the first prize in the lottery of life" (Storr, 2021).
The Moral Ambiguity of Debt
David Graeber, Professor of Anthropology at the London School of Economics and author of Debt: The First 5000 Years, argues that debt repayment is often conflated with moral rectitude (Graeber, 2012).
The Maori people of New Zealand maintain a strong moral imperative against refusing requests for sustenance (Firth, 1959).
"Debt is a promise tampered with by math and violence. No one has the right to measure our worth, and no one can say how much we owe" (Graeber, 2012).
Quote of Isaac Bashevis-Singer: https://www.goodreads.com/quotes/746608-we-must-believe-in-free-will-we-have-no-choice
In 1998, neuroscientist Christoph Koch wagered with philosopher David Chalmers. Koch claimed that within 25 years, science would answer the question of human consciousness, and by 2023, the mechanism by which brain neurons generate it would be discovered: (Wnuk, 2023).
The 'hard problem of consciousness,' formulated by David Chalmers in 1994, addresses why and how we have subjective experience, which remains unknown (Chalmers, 1995).
Reality as History
The human mind tends to perceive reality as a narrative, often casting oneself as a protagonist with strong moral principles, thus framing experiences within a context of heroism, morality, and the pursuit of justice (Sutton, 2022).
Confabulation, the brain's process of constructing a narrative to derive meaning from diverse neural signals, is a key example of this tendency (Eagleman, 2011).
Christos Behlivanidis, an associate professor at University College, notes that this occurs "when praying or hoping for the outcome of something that has already happened" (Dolan, 2022).
In three experiments involving 607 participants, Behlivanidis et al. (2022) explored this concept through domino-like collisions displayed on a monitor.
If one believes that an impact is necessary for an object to break, that is what will be perceived, "even if by some crazy coincidence the events happen in a different order" (Dolan, 2022).
Behlivanidis suggests that "we perceive causes in the same way we perceive color or depth" (Dolan, 2022).
Free Will
A year later, they returned, coinciding with the discovery of a new tumor (Burns & Swerdlow, 2003).
Similarly, a respected 64-year-old pediatrician, married for 40 years with two children, suddenly became a pedophile and was apprehended for committing lewd acts against a young girl (Sartori et al., 2016).
Sam Harris observed that a profound realization of the absence of free will would diminish our capacity for hatred. How can one hate an individual who is not the master of their actions? (Burkeman, 2021).
Morals
Conversely, virtuous actions are seen as authentic expressions of our character (Love, 2021).
This asymmetry is evident in the tendency to attribute our positive qualities to our inherent nature, while attributing others' negative qualities to their choices (Lebowitz et al., 2022).
The products we consume, from athletic shoes to seafood, are often produced under ethically questionable conditions (Schur, 2022).
A group of psychologists, led by Professor Jonathan Haidt from the University of Virginia, proposed the theory of moral foundations (Haidt, 2012).
Twin studies (Zakharin & Bates, 2022) indicate a substantial genetic basis for these foundations, with heredity accounting for 40-66% of their variation.
When offered a fair division of money, participants often suspected a computer (Waytz et al., 2010).
We tend to perceive entities that move at human speeds as more intelligent (Dennett, 2008).
Conversely, entities that move too quickly or too slowly are often perceived as less intelligent (Morewedge et al., 2007).
Thus, it is preferable to be a hare than a tortoise, but not a cockroach or a fly (Wegner & Gray, 2017).
Walking speed declines with age, and the rate of decline is a strong predictor of mortality (White et al., 2013).
Maintaining a walking speed of at least 1 meter per second after the age of 65 is advisable (Meyer et al., 2021).
Children who grow into slow-walking adults tend to have lower IQ scores (Rasmussen et al., 2019).
The Neurobiology of Free Will
In the 1960s, Luder Deecke and Hans Helmut Kornhuber, scientists at the University of Freiburg, made a groundbreaking discovery: (Kornhuber & Deecke,
Libet proposed that the readiness potential was a neural precursor to conscious decision-making (Libet, 2009).
Some were convinced that free will was an illusion, while others sought alternative interpretations to preserve the concept of free will (Libet, 2009).
Daniel Wegner and Talia Wheatley of the University of Virginia conducted experiments purportedly examining the sensation of intentional action (Wegner & Wheatley, 1999).
In 2010, French scientists Eren Schurger, Jacobo Sitt, and Stanislaw Dehaene proposed an alternative interpretation of the readiness potential, suggesting it represents not a decision-making signal but rather random neuronal activity, or "noise": (Schurger, Sitt, & Dehaene, 2012; Gholipour, 2019).
Christoph Koch and his colleagues conducted a variation of Libet's experiment: (Maoz et al., 2012).
Swiss scientists have also demonstrated that pupil dilation can predict choices before conscious awareness (Li, 2020).
Psychologist Azim Shariff described an experiment where students were divided into two groups (World Science Festival, 2015).
Recently, a research program (https://neurophil-freewill.org) funded by two private foundations brought together 17 neuroscientists and philosophers with seven million dollars to investigate the questions, "What does it take to have free will? And do we have it?"
Good and Evil
The Tunebo people of Colombia's misty forests hold a belief that twins attract misfortune. If a woman gives birth to twins, the tradition dictates that one or both infants should be killed (Stewart-Williams, 2018).
For instance, individuals can sustain a weight on an outstretched arm for longer durations after donating to charity (Gray, 2010).
Similarly, participation in charitable marathons enhances performance, and assisting colleagues improves individual productivity (Grant, 2013).
Notably, the described acts of evil were not trivial; one participant detailed a violent assault. (Wegner & Gray, 2017).
British writer Neil Gaiman has highlighted the significant influence of the private prison industry in the United States (Gaiman, 2013).
English evolutionary biologist Richard Dawkins has offered a stark perspective on good and evil: (Dawkins, 2008).
Until 1999, Bhutan was the only nation without television. Following the king's decision to introduce television, Bhutanese society was exposed to 46 channels of fictional content (Scott-Clark & Levy, 2003).
Dawkins further states, "Nature is neither good nor evil. She is neither against suffering nor in favor of it. She is not interested in it in any way, unless it has to do with DNA survival" (Dawkins, 2008).
Moral Status
Neuroscientist and philosopher Sam Harris recounted a debate with Rick Warren, a prominent American preacher and author of The Meaning Driven Life, which for a period was the best-selling book of all time (Newsweek Web Exclusive, 2007).
During the discussion, Warren stated, "If the Bible were fiction, I would rape and kill people" (Harris & Gervais. 2020).
Despite higher levels of poverty and mortality compared to contemporary society, this era was characterized by a widespread belief that "to be born English meant winning the first prize in the lottery of life" (Storr, 2021).
The Moral Ambiguity of Debt
David Graeber, Professor of Anthropology at the London School of Economics and author of Debt: The First 5000 Years, argues that debt repayment is often conflated with moral rectitude (Graeber, 2012).
The Maori people of New Zealand maintain a strong moral imperative against refusing requests for sustenance (Firth, 1959).
"Debt is a promise tampered with by math and violence. No one has the right to measure our worth, and no one can say how much we owe" (Graeber, 2012).
15. The Reality of Others
A Historical Perspective: Migration and Human Connection
Tim Earle, an economic anthropologist who specializes in the archaeological studies of social inequality observed, "We now realize that long-distance migration is one of the fundamental processes of human history. It seems that we are made for traveling, we have evolved to travel" (2011).
We are all, in essence, strangers navigating our own paths. As evolutionary psychologists Leda Cosmides and John Tooby (1997) noted, "Each of our ancestors was, in effect, on a lifelong hiking trip, and such a life has continued for most of the last 10 million years."
The Foundation of Hospitality: A Universal Social Practice
This enrichment of worldview through interactions with strangers was eloquently articulated by Thomas Ogletree, former dean of the Yale School of Theology: (Keohane, 2021).
Historian and philosopher Theodore Zeldin observed: "Life becomes a constant surprise rather than a source of anxiety. One is so absorbed and fascinated by one's discoveries, which always lead to something else" (Keohane, 2021).
Psychological Insights: The Benefits of Social Connection
As Nicholas Epley, a professor at the University of Chicago's Booth School of Business, has found, we are social beings who often underutilize our capacity for connection (Keohane, 2021).
"People can sometimes achieve a surprising degree of intimacy with total strangers," wrote American psychologist Zeke Rubin (Keohane, 2021).
Theodore Zeldin states: (Keohane, 2021).
Overcoming Fear: The Reality of Stranger Danger
Women are more likely to be killed by their own parents (8.2%) or their own children (9%) than by strangers (6.8%) (Keohane, 2021).
Jiya Jiang, author of Rejection Proof, talked about how the fear of rejection prevented him from achieving his dreams (Jiang, 2016).
Practical Strategies: Engaging with Strangers
Georgie Nightingall, in her TEDx talk, offers five tips on how to foster better conversations with strangers (Nightingall, 2018).
Canadian psychologist Gillian Sandstrom suggests, "Notice something about a person, give a compliment or ask a question. Then you just can't close your mouth anymore, it's so easy. Everyone likes it so much that no one wants to stop" (Keohane, 2021).
Approximately 40% of participants exchange contact information, and 80% acquire new knowledge. Individuals form friendships, establish dates, and provide mutual assistance in professional endeavors (Keohane, 2021).
Chris Voss, a former FBI negotiator and current writer and lecturer on negotiation, employs a labeling technique to facilitate the expression of emotions (Voss, 2019).
Psychologist Larry Young, who directs the Oxytocin Research Lab at Emory University, states that when we look into the other person's eyes, it tells them about the connection between us, and can trigger the release of oxytocin (Alexander, 2014).
American students were provided with a biographical article about Grigory Rasputin (Finch & Cialdini, 1989).
Oxytocin increases the desire to protect "our own" and may stimulate "preemptive strikes" against outsiders to mitigate potential aggression (De Dreu et al., 2010).
The Power of Questions
In Kurt Vonnegut's novel Bluebeard (2009), the protagonist greets a stranger on the beach and receives the unexpected response.
Tim Boomer, an insurance specialist from Boston, deliberately avoids banal exchanges in his conversations (Boomer, 2016).
You can always elevate formal small talk by asking, "Why did you fall in love with your wife?" (Boomer, 2016).
Researchers at Harvard University have found through a series of experiments that individuals who ask questions are significantly more liked by their conversational partners than those who do not (Huang et al., 2017).
Journalist Chris Colin and comedian Rob Baedeker, intrigued by the challenge of talking to strangers, co-authored the humorous book What to talk about on a plane, at a cocktail party, or in a cramped lift with your boss (Colin & Baedeker, 2014).
In 1997, a group of psychologists led by Arthur Aron developed and tested a set of 36 questions designed to foster immediate intimacy between strangers (Aron et al., 1997).
These questions gained prominence in 2015 after Mandy Len Catron's article in The New York Times (Catron, 2015), where she described how using these questions with a colleague led to a romantic relationship.
The questionnaire is divided into three sets of 12 questions, with each set progressively deepening the connection. Experiments have shown that these questions can "bring together" not only romantic partners but also friends.
Allocate about an hour in a quiet setting. Take turns answering the questions. Speak openly, avoid taking notes or commenting on your partner's answers, and be as sincere as possible. If someone chooses not to answer a question, they should skip it, though this may diminish the potential for building intimacy.
Series 1:
● If you could choose anyone, who would you invite to dinner?
● Would you like to be famous? In what field?
● Before making a call, do you rehearse what you'll say? Why?
● What would a "perfect day" be like for you?
● When was the last time you sang alone? And for someone else?
● If you could live to 90 and retain either the mind or body of a 30-year-old for the last 60 years, which would you choose?
● Do you have any idea how you're going to die?
● Name three traits you think you and your partner share.
● What are you most thankful for in life?
● If you could change anything about your upbringing, what would it be?
● In four minutes, tell your partner your life story in as much detail as possible.
● If you could wake up tomorrow with any skill or ability, what would it be?
Series 2:
● If a magic crystal could reveal the truth, what would you want to know?
● Is there something you've wanted to do for a long time? Why haven't you done it?
● Name your greatest accomplishment.
● What do you value most in a friendship?
● What is your most treasured memory?
● What is your worst memory?
● If you were to die in a year, what would you change in your life? Why?
● What does friendship mean to you?
● What role do love and tenderness play in your life?
● Take turns naming five positive characteristics of your partner.
● How warm and friendly is your family? Do you feel your childhood was happier than others'?
● What is your relationship with your mother?
Series 3:
● Make three statements that are true for both of you. For example: "We are both feeling..."
● Finish the sentence, "I wish I had someone to share with..."
● If you were to be close friends with your partner, what would they need to know about you?
● Tell your partner what you like about them, being direct and saying things you wouldn't say to a casual acquaintance.
● Share an embarrassing story.
● When was the last time you cried in front of someone? And alone?
● Tell your partner what you already appreciate about them.
● What topic is too serious to joke about?
● If you were to die today without speaking to anyone, what unspoken thing would you most regret? Why haven't you said it?
● Your house is on fire. After rescuing everyone, you can save one item. What will it be? Why?
● Which family member's death would upset you most? Why?
● Share a personal problem and ask your partner how they would handle it. Then ask how they feel about your feelings.
End by looking into each other's eyes for four minutes.
A list of 25 questions (Bowie, 2020) to ask your partner at the end of the day, instead of the usual "How was your day?" questions, can also be adapted for starting the day or engaging with strangers:
● Which part of the day turned out to be the best?
● Did anything surprise you today?
● Have you read/listened to anything interesting today?
● Did you take pictures today? Which ones?
● How can I make your day easier in five minutes?
● What did you do today just for yourself?
● What would you like to do more of today?
● What would you like to do less of today?
● What made you laugh today?
● Did anything upset you today?
● Did you receive good news today?
● How many cups of coffee did you drink today?
● What are you most thankful for today?
● What was the best conversation you had today?
● Tell me about three good things that happened to you today.
● What did you have for lunch today?
● What inspired you the most today?
● Which of the things you did today do you wish you could do every day?
● Have you done something kind for someone today?
● If you could repeat any part of today, what would it be and why?
● When today did you feel appreciated?
● If you could guarantee one thing for tomorrow, what would it be?
● If your day was turned into a film, who would you play in it?
● Will you remember a particular part of today a year from now? Five years from now? How long from now?
● Aren't you going to ask me about my day?
Writer Caitlin Wylde has tested numerous questions to strengthen friendships. Here are five from her extensive list (Wylde, 2015):
● What's something you've always wanted to try to do?
● If you were to start a nonprofit foundation, what would it do?
● What do you struggle with every day?
● What would your autobiography be called?
● If you were offered to live in another country for a year, which one would you choose?
There are also lists of questions worth asking before getting married (Stanford, 2016; Catron, 2017):
The Power of Active Listening
The act of mirroring signals to the interlocutor that they are being heard, and heard attentively (Voss, 2019).
To master this skill, consider these mnemonic devices (Berger, 2018).
Building Connections Through Conversation
Nicholas Epley asserts that the frequency of these connections is a key determinant of happiness (Epley, 2020).
A Historical Perspective: Migration and Human Connection
Tim Earle, an economic anthropologist who specializes in the archaeological studies of social inequality observed, "We now realize that long-distance migration is one of the fundamental processes of human history. It seems that we are made for traveling, we have evolved to travel" (2011).
We are all, in essence, strangers navigating our own paths. As evolutionary psychologists Leda Cosmides and John Tooby (1997) noted, "Each of our ancestors was, in effect, on a lifelong hiking trip, and such a life has continued for most of the last 10 million years."
The Foundation of Hospitality: A Universal Social Practice
This enrichment of worldview through interactions with strangers was eloquently articulated by Thomas Ogletree, former dean of the Yale School of Theology: (Keohane, 2021).
Historian and philosopher Theodore Zeldin observed: "Life becomes a constant surprise rather than a source of anxiety. One is so absorbed and fascinated by one's discoveries, which always lead to something else" (Keohane, 2021).
Psychological Insights: The Benefits of Social Connection
As Nicholas Epley, a professor at the University of Chicago's Booth School of Business, has found, we are social beings who often underutilize our capacity for connection (Keohane, 2021).
"People can sometimes achieve a surprising degree of intimacy with total strangers," wrote American psychologist Zeke Rubin (Keohane, 2021).
Theodore Zeldin states: (Keohane, 2021).
Overcoming Fear: The Reality of Stranger Danger
Women are more likely to be killed by their own parents (8.2%) or their own children (9%) than by strangers (6.8%) (Keohane, 2021).
Jiya Jiang, author of Rejection Proof, talked about how the fear of rejection prevented him from achieving his dreams (Jiang, 2016).
Practical Strategies: Engaging with Strangers
Georgie Nightingall, in her TEDx talk, offers five tips on how to foster better conversations with strangers (Nightingall, 2018).
Canadian psychologist Gillian Sandstrom suggests, "Notice something about a person, give a compliment or ask a question. Then you just can't close your mouth anymore, it's so easy. Everyone likes it so much that no one wants to stop" (Keohane, 2021).
Approximately 40% of participants exchange contact information, and 80% acquire new knowledge. Individuals form friendships, establish dates, and provide mutual assistance in professional endeavors (Keohane, 2021).
Chris Voss, a former FBI negotiator and current writer and lecturer on negotiation, employs a labeling technique to facilitate the expression of emotions (Voss, 2019).
Psychologist Larry Young, who directs the Oxytocin Research Lab at Emory University, states that when we look into the other person's eyes, it tells them about the connection between us, and can trigger the release of oxytocin (Alexander, 2014).
American students were provided with a biographical article about Grigory Rasputin (Finch & Cialdini, 1989).
Oxytocin increases the desire to protect "our own" and may stimulate "preemptive strikes" against outsiders to mitigate potential aggression (De Dreu et al., 2010).
The Power of Questions
In Kurt Vonnegut's novel Bluebeard (2009), the protagonist greets a stranger on the beach and receives the unexpected response.
Tim Boomer, an insurance specialist from Boston, deliberately avoids banal exchanges in his conversations (Boomer, 2016).
You can always elevate formal small talk by asking, "Why did you fall in love with your wife?" (Boomer, 2016).
Researchers at Harvard University have found through a series of experiments that individuals who ask questions are significantly more liked by their conversational partners than those who do not (Huang et al., 2017).
Journalist Chris Colin and comedian Rob Baedeker, intrigued by the challenge of talking to strangers, co-authored the humorous book What to talk about on a plane, at a cocktail party, or in a cramped lift with your boss (Colin & Baedeker, 2014).
In 1997, a group of psychologists led by Arthur Aron developed and tested a set of 36 questions designed to foster immediate intimacy between strangers (Aron et al., 1997).
These questions gained prominence in 2015 after Mandy Len Catron's article in The New York Times (Catron, 2015), where she described how using these questions with a colleague led to a romantic relationship.
The questionnaire is divided into three sets of 12 questions, with each set progressively deepening the connection. Experiments have shown that these questions can "bring together" not only romantic partners but also friends.
Allocate about an hour in a quiet setting. Take turns answering the questions. Speak openly, avoid taking notes or commenting on your partner's answers, and be as sincere as possible. If someone chooses not to answer a question, they should skip it, though this may diminish the potential for building intimacy.
Series 1:
● If you could choose anyone, who would you invite to dinner?
● Would you like to be famous? In what field?
● Before making a call, do you rehearse what you'll say? Why?
● What would a "perfect day" be like for you?
● When was the last time you sang alone? And for someone else?
● If you could live to 90 and retain either the mind or body of a 30-year-old for the last 60 years, which would you choose?
● Do you have any idea how you're going to die?
● Name three traits you think you and your partner share.
● What are you most thankful for in life?
● If you could change anything about your upbringing, what would it be?
● In four minutes, tell your partner your life story in as much detail as possible.
● If you could wake up tomorrow with any skill or ability, what would it be?
Series 2:
● If a magic crystal could reveal the truth, what would you want to know?
● Is there something you've wanted to do for a long time? Why haven't you done it?
● Name your greatest accomplishment.
● What do you value most in a friendship?
● What is your most treasured memory?
● What is your worst memory?
● If you were to die in a year, what would you change in your life? Why?
● What does friendship mean to you?
● What role do love and tenderness play in your life?
● Take turns naming five positive characteristics of your partner.
● How warm and friendly is your family? Do you feel your childhood was happier than others'?
● What is your relationship with your mother?
Series 3:
● Make three statements that are true for both of you. For example: "We are both feeling..."
● Finish the sentence, "I wish I had someone to share with..."
● If you were to be close friends with your partner, what would they need to know about you?
● Tell your partner what you like about them, being direct and saying things you wouldn't say to a casual acquaintance.
● Share an embarrassing story.
● When was the last time you cried in front of someone? And alone?
● Tell your partner what you already appreciate about them.
● What topic is too serious to joke about?
● If you were to die today without speaking to anyone, what unspoken thing would you most regret? Why haven't you said it?
● Your house is on fire. After rescuing everyone, you can save one item. What will it be? Why?
● Which family member's death would upset you most? Why?
● Share a personal problem and ask your partner how they would handle it. Then ask how they feel about your feelings.
End by looking into each other's eyes for four minutes.
A list of 25 questions (Bowie, 2020) to ask your partner at the end of the day, instead of the usual "How was your day?" questions, can also be adapted for starting the day or engaging with strangers:
● Which part of the day turned out to be the best?
● Did anything surprise you today?
● Have you read/listened to anything interesting today?
● Did you take pictures today? Which ones?
● How can I make your day easier in five minutes?
● What did you do today just for yourself?
● What would you like to do more of today?
● What would you like to do less of today?
● What made you laugh today?
● Did anything upset you today?
● Did you receive good news today?
● How many cups of coffee did you drink today?
● What are you most thankful for today?
● What was the best conversation you had today?
● Tell me about three good things that happened to you today.
● What did you have for lunch today?
● What inspired you the most today?
● Which of the things you did today do you wish you could do every day?
● Have you done something kind for someone today?
● If you could repeat any part of today, what would it be and why?
● When today did you feel appreciated?
● If you could guarantee one thing for tomorrow, what would it be?
● If your day was turned into a film, who would you play in it?
● Will you remember a particular part of today a year from now? Five years from now? How long from now?
● Aren't you going to ask me about my day?
Writer Caitlin Wylde has tested numerous questions to strengthen friendships. Here are five from her extensive list (Wylde, 2015):
● What's something you've always wanted to try to do?
● If you were to start a nonprofit foundation, what would it do?
● What do you struggle with every day?
● What would your autobiography be called?
● If you were offered to live in another country for a year, which one would you choose?
There are also lists of questions worth asking before getting married (Stanford, 2016; Catron, 2017):
The Power of Active Listening
The act of mirroring signals to the interlocutor that they are being heard, and heard attentively (Voss, 2019).
To master this skill, consider these mnemonic devices (Berger, 2018).
Building Connections Through Conversation
Nicholas Epley asserts that the frequency of these connections is a key determinant of happiness (Epley, 2020).
16. Who are we?
Benjamin Franklin’s quote: https://quoteinvestigator.com/2017/09/04/self/
The Big Five
The Big Five model description mostly from: (Miller, 2009).
Of course, sociocultural factors are inextricably intertwined with genetic factors, and it is impossible to isolate the pure influence of either genetics or environment (Kaufman, 2013).
Agreeableness
These characteristics can predict various behaviors (Silvia et al., 2022).
What's to be Done About It?
The BFI-10, a brief 10-question scale developed by psychologists Beatrice Rammstedt and Oliver John (Rammstedt & John, 2007), provides a convenient tool for self-assessment and the assessment of others.
After each statement below, write a number between 1 and 5 indicating how well the statement describes your personality, where:
1 = strongly disagree,
2 = slightly disagree,
3 = can't say I agree, can't say I disagree,
4 = somewhat agree,
5 = totally agree.
I consider myself a person who:
1. has an active imagination _______
2. has few artistic interests _______
3. thoroughly performs the work _______
4. prone to laziness _______
5. usually trusting _______
6. tends to find faults in others _______
7. relaxed, copes well with stress _______
8. gets nervous easily _______
9. sociable, communicative _______
10. discreet _______
Evaluation:
Items 1 and 2 relate to openness,
3 and 4 are to integrity,
5 and 6 are for malleability,
7 and 8 are for emotional stability, and
9 and 10 to extroversion.
For each pair, take the score for the odd question and subtract the score for the even question from it. The result will be a score on a scale where -4 is very low, 0 is average, and +4 is very high.
Example: for question 9 you answered "completely agree", i.e. you get 5 points, for question 10 you answered "slightly disagree", i.e. 4 points. You do the subtraction and get 1 point, i.e. extraversion is slightly above average.
The profile that is described by these five characteristics (plus intelligence) can tell a lot about us and predict our behavior. Predict the profession, the partner, the books we will read, the car we will like, the type of holiday we will prefer and much more.
Genetics
Genetic influences have been observed in substance use, with heritability estimates of 11% for smoking, 12% for alcohol use, 18% for methamphetamine use, 22% for heroin use, and 65% for cocaine use (The Government Office for Science, 2022).
Neural Mechanisms of Behavior
The nervous system does not employ evaluative criteria and functions regardless of whether its performance is beneficial or detrimental to the organism (Vicencio-Jimenez et al., 2022).
Laboratory observations reveal that cells appear to anticipate future events. However, this appearance is illusory, as cellular activity is governed by physical laws, devoid of volition or knowledge (Shirakawa, 2006).
Neurobiologist John Allman has noted that somatosensory neurons regulating suckling are among the first to develop in mammalian brains (Allman, 1999).
Recent studies suggest that the nervous system may have evolved to regulate feeding in general (Musser et al., 2021).
We Are What We Do
"We are what we pretend to be, so we must be careful about what we pretend to be" (Vonnegut, 1999).
Timothy Wilson offers a similar perspective: "We are what we do" (Wilson, 2004).
Live Fast, Die Young
The "live fast, die young" metaphor, articulated by evolutionary biologist George Williams, suggests that in high-mortality environments, prioritizing the present over the future is adaptive (Nettle, 2022).
Social diet, the frequency and variety of social interactions, is influenced by the environment (Nettle, Coyne, & Colléony, 2012).
Statistics support these observations: the average life expectancy of a gang member is 20 years and 5 months (Zivanovic, 2016), while the average life expectancy of the super-rich is around 89 years (Foxman, 2019) or 90 in Monaco (Keats, 2020).
There's a Lot We Don't Know About Ourselves
Half of people's income is determined by their parents' income (Matthews, 2015).
Democracy is associated with taller stature, likely due to improved living conditions (Batinti & Costa-Font, 2022).
Muscle and skin cells can remain viable for weeks after death (Thomson, 2019).
Suicide risk is higher for renters aged 40-60, particularly married men and single women without children (Damiens & Schnor, 2021).
Electrical stimulation of specific brain regions can induce or suppress suicidal thoughts (Bejjani et al., 1999; Valenstein, 1974).
Gravity influences numerical sequencing (Barrett, 2020).
Testosterone levels correlate with religiosity (Schnell, 2020).
Fear of spiders is more prevalent than fear of cars, despite the higher mortality rate associated with cars (WHO, 2018; Forrester et al., 2018).
People overestimate their resistance to social pressure (Sommers & Bohns, 2018).
Thought patterns can be analyzed through think-aloud exercises (Raffaelli et al., 2021).
Chocolate consumption may influence female libido (Golomb & Berg, 2021).
Gentle touch elicits specific neural responses (Linden, 2016).
The appeal of flowers remains a mystery (Hůla & Flegr, 2021).
Academy Award winners have longer life expectancies (Klein, 2022).
Imposter syndrome is common (Sakulku, 2011).
We Judge Others by Ourselves
The vignettes are from (Ambridge, 2014).
American theoretical physicist, futurologist and populariser of science Michio Kaku said in a conversation with Lex Friedman that advanced civilisations can travel digitally rather than bodily through space (Fridman, 2019).
Benjamin Franklin’s quote: https://quoteinvestigator.com/2017/09/04/self/
The Big Five
The Big Five model description mostly from: (Miller, 2009).
Of course, sociocultural factors are inextricably intertwined with genetic factors, and it is impossible to isolate the pure influence of either genetics or environment (Kaufman, 2013).
Agreeableness
These characteristics can predict various behaviors (Silvia et al., 2022).
What's to be Done About It?
The BFI-10, a brief 10-question scale developed by psychologists Beatrice Rammstedt and Oliver John (Rammstedt & John, 2007), provides a convenient tool for self-assessment and the assessment of others.
After each statement below, write a number between 1 and 5 indicating how well the statement describes your personality, where:
1 = strongly disagree,
2 = slightly disagree,
3 = can't say I agree, can't say I disagree,
4 = somewhat agree,
5 = totally agree.
I consider myself a person who:
1. has an active imagination _______
2. has few artistic interests _______
3. thoroughly performs the work _______
4. prone to laziness _______
5. usually trusting _______
6. tends to find faults in others _______
7. relaxed, copes well with stress _______
8. gets nervous easily _______
9. sociable, communicative _______
10. discreet _______
Evaluation:
Items 1 and 2 relate to openness,
3 and 4 are to integrity,
5 and 6 are for malleability,
7 and 8 are for emotional stability, and
9 and 10 to extroversion.
For each pair, take the score for the odd question and subtract the score for the even question from it. The result will be a score on a scale where -4 is very low, 0 is average, and +4 is very high.
Example: for question 9 you answered "completely agree", i.e. you get 5 points, for question 10 you answered "slightly disagree", i.e. 4 points. You do the subtraction and get 1 point, i.e. extraversion is slightly above average.
The profile that is described by these five characteristics (plus intelligence) can tell a lot about us and predict our behavior. Predict the profession, the partner, the books we will read, the car we will like, the type of holiday we will prefer and much more.
Genetics
Genetic influences have been observed in substance use, with heritability estimates of 11% for smoking, 12% for alcohol use, 18% for methamphetamine use, 22% for heroin use, and 65% for cocaine use (The Government Office for Science, 2022).
Neural Mechanisms of Behavior
The nervous system does not employ evaluative criteria and functions regardless of whether its performance is beneficial or detrimental to the organism (Vicencio-Jimenez et al., 2022).
Laboratory observations reveal that cells appear to anticipate future events. However, this appearance is illusory, as cellular activity is governed by physical laws, devoid of volition or knowledge (Shirakawa, 2006).
Neurobiologist John Allman has noted that somatosensory neurons regulating suckling are among the first to develop in mammalian brains (Allman, 1999).
Recent studies suggest that the nervous system may have evolved to regulate feeding in general (Musser et al., 2021).
We Are What We Do
"We are what we pretend to be, so we must be careful about what we pretend to be" (Vonnegut, 1999).
Timothy Wilson offers a similar perspective: "We are what we do" (Wilson, 2004).
Live Fast, Die Young
The "live fast, die young" metaphor, articulated by evolutionary biologist George Williams, suggests that in high-mortality environments, prioritizing the present over the future is adaptive (Nettle, 2022).
Social diet, the frequency and variety of social interactions, is influenced by the environment (Nettle, Coyne, & Colléony, 2012).
Statistics support these observations: the average life expectancy of a gang member is 20 years and 5 months (Zivanovic, 2016), while the average life expectancy of the super-rich is around 89 years (Foxman, 2019) or 90 in Monaco (Keats, 2020).
There's a Lot We Don't Know About Ourselves
Half of people's income is determined by their parents' income (Matthews, 2015).
Democracy is associated with taller stature, likely due to improved living conditions (Batinti & Costa-Font, 2022).
Muscle and skin cells can remain viable for weeks after death (Thomson, 2019).
Suicide risk is higher for renters aged 40-60, particularly married men and single women without children (Damiens & Schnor, 2021).
Electrical stimulation of specific brain regions can induce or suppress suicidal thoughts (Bejjani et al., 1999; Valenstein, 1974).
Gravity influences numerical sequencing (Barrett, 2020).
Testosterone levels correlate with religiosity (Schnell, 2020).
Fear of spiders is more prevalent than fear of cars, despite the higher mortality rate associated with cars (WHO, 2018; Forrester et al., 2018).
People overestimate their resistance to social pressure (Sommers & Bohns, 2018).
Thought patterns can be analyzed through think-aloud exercises (Raffaelli et al., 2021).
Chocolate consumption may influence female libido (Golomb & Berg, 2021).
Gentle touch elicits specific neural responses (Linden, 2016).
The appeal of flowers remains a mystery (Hůla & Flegr, 2021).
Academy Award winners have longer life expectancies (Klein, 2022).
Imposter syndrome is common (Sakulku, 2011).
We Judge Others by Ourselves
The vignettes are from (Ambridge, 2014).
American theoretical physicist, futurologist and populariser of science Michio Kaku said in a conversation with Lex Friedman that advanced civilisations can travel digitally rather than bodily through space (Fridman, 2019).
17. Status
David Foster Wallace’s quote: https://www.goodreads.com/quotes/7113791-you-ll-stop-worrying-what-others-think-about-you-when-you
What, Precisely, is Status?
Will Storr, in his best-selling book The Status Game, argues, based on extensive research, that we are perpetually engaged in this pursuit (Storr, 2021).
Therefore, status is a joint product of dominance and prestige (Cheng & Tracy, 2014).
Status Provides Access to the Finest Aspects of Life.
A study encompassing 186 'primitive' tribes worldwide, from the Mbuti Pygmies in Africa to the Aleutians of Alaska, revealed that high-status men possess greater wealth and multiple wives, and they provide superior nutrition for their children (Buss, 2019).
This pattern is observed across all non-industrialized societies (von Rueden & Jaeggi, 2016) and remains relevant in contemporary 'equal opportunity democracies.'
Some researchers propose that our emotions—pride, shame, envy, and others—are specifically designed for status-related endeavors (Durkee, 2021).
Mitch Prinstein, a psychology professor and popularity researcher, demonstrates that status profoundly influences the nature, course, and duration of life. It affects health, family relationships, finances, career success, the likelihood of alcoholism, and children's academic performance (Prinstein, 2017).
This explains the intense and emotional struggle for status, as the achievement of high status is accompanied and reinforced by all available rewards (Storr, 2021).
George Gier's advertising texts for Porsche: "It's almost as fast as you can go, but without the airplane food" or: "Small penis? We have a car for you" (Dye, 2022).
The Historical Evolution of Status.
In 1975, 38% of survey respondents indicated that a good life should include a lot of money. By 1996, this figure had risen to 63% (Putnam, 2000).
The Pursuit of Status: Its Role in Science and Art
In the 18th century, as art transitioned from utilitarian function to a separate entity from craftsmanship, it became a status marker in Western European culture (Shiner 2001).
As digital computers emerged, women were pioneers in software development (Thompson, 2019).
Status is a Social Construct
To illustrate this, consider a thought experiment proposed by Professor William Irvine (Irvine, 2007).
A study published in Nature (Oh, Shafir, & Todorov, 2020) revealed that participants consistently perceived individuals in expensive clothing as more competent and of higher status.
Status Objects
As sports historian Bert Sugar once observed, "Owning horses is the only currency that separates the truly rich from everyone else" (Sugar, 2003).
The Theory of Expensive Signals
A study (Han, Nunes, & Drèze, 2010) identified two distinct groups among the wealthy: "parvenus," who recently acquired status and seek to distance themselves from their past, signaling to those of lower status; and "patricians," who prioritize signaling among their peers.
The act of placing advertisements in prestigious venues, utilizing high-end advertising agencies, signals the corporation's financial health to investors, competitors, and potential employees (Miller, 2009).
It is theorized that the decline of dueling stemmed from its accessibility to commoners, diminishing its status as a noble practice (Appiah, 2011).
Demonstrative Consumption: The Birkin Bag
Thorstein Veblen, an American economist, sociologist, and futurologist, introduced the concept of "conspicuous consumption" as early as 1899 (Veblen, 1973).
The bag's origin, a conversation between Jane Birkin and Hermès CEO Jean-Louis Dumas in 1983, contributes to its mystique (Unger, 2016).
A 2016 study found that Birkin bags have outperformed the S&P 500 by 12% and gold by 2% over 30 years (Phan, 2021), further solidifying its status as a valuable asset.
Demonstrative Consumption: Weddings
Throughout history, the most expensive lifetime demonstrative costs have been weddings and funerals (Graeber, 2011).
Biological Markers of Status
In an experiment (Acikalin et al., 2018), Bengal macaques preferred brand logos associated with images of high-status macaques, demonstrating the prioritization of status information.
Historically, scurvy plagued seafarers, causing widespread illness and death. In 1769, Captain Cook, aware of sauerkraut's efficacy, faced resistance from his crew, who were reluctant to consume such common fare (Storr, 2021).
This detachment can lead to compromised relationships, which are crucial for human well-being (MacLellan, 2016).
The medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) plays a key role in processing status information (Padilla-Coreano et al., 2022).
In the macaque experiment (Acikalin et al., 2018), brand preferences were significantly higher when associated with sexual stimuli than with status cues.
The Influence of High Status: Celebrities and Public Perception
Gwyneth Paltrow's website features unconventional products, such as a scented candle marketed as "This Smells Like My Vagina" for just $75 (Trott, 2021).
Speech Patterns and Status
James Pennebaker's research on language and status reveals that pronoun usage can indicate social standing (Pennebaker, 2011).
Sociological studies show that people will make knowingly false statements if other high-ranking "participants" in the experiment (actually actors) say so first (Storr, 2021).
Consequences of Low Status: Physiological and Social Impacts
Similarly, research on baboons demonstrated that status, rather than genetics, significantly influenced cardiovascular health (Marmot, 2007).
Psychologists George Slavich and Steve Cole from the University of California, Los Angeles, investigated what happens to our bodies in situations of ostracism - when we are rejected even by a stranger, let alone a loved one, when we are not invited to a party (Slavich & Cole, 2013).
When social rejection was artificially created in the laboratory, people started eating more sweets, i.e. taste perception was altered (Baumeister et al., 2005).
In Japan, declining sexual activity and social withdrawal are linked to socioeconomic factors, highlighting the impact of status on personal relationships (Ghaznavi et al., 2019).
Humiliation and Comparative Status
Robert Frank illustrated the human sensitivity to relative status through a simple experiment with children, demonstrating that perceived unfairness elicits strong reactions (Frank, 1985).
Status Elevation Through Humiliation
James Gilligan's research on violence reveals that many violent acts stem from perceived disrespect and a desire to restore status (Gould, 2020).
As Kurt Vonnegut said in Slaughterhouse-Five: “He supposed that the intent of the Gospels was to teach people, among other things, to be merciful, even to the lowest of the low(Vonnegut, 1968).
Compensatory Behaviors in Low-Status Individuals
The facts about The Thaipusam festival are from studies: (Xygalatas et al., 2013; Xygalatas et al., 2021).
The Elusive Nature of Equality
"Idealists tell the story that humanity is striving for equality. But it isn't. Utopians talk about injustice, but they build new hierarchies and place themselves at the top. The lust for status is indestructible. It is the secret purpose of our lives, to choose status for ourselves and our game - and to get as much as we can for ourselves. This is how we create meaning. That's how we create our identity. Equality will always be an unrealisable dream" (Storr, 2021).
It's the worst of us, it's the best of us and it's the inescapable truth of us: for humans, equality will always be the impossible dream” (Storr, 2021).
The Reality of People with Enormous Power
British historian Roy Sydney Porter, in his book A Social History of Madness: Stories of the Insane, stated: "The history of madness is the history of power. Madness imagines power, and it is both impotence and omnipotence. Madness craves power, to keep itself in check. Threatening the normal structures of control, madness conducts an endless dialogue, at times a manic monologue - about power" (Porter, 1987).
Lord David Owen, a former British Foreign Secretary and clinical neurologist and psychiatrist, examined numerous modern world leaders in his book (Owen, 2008).
David Owen further developed this concept by describing and proposing the introduction of "hubris syndrome" into the list of psychiatric diseases (Owen & Davidson, 2009).
Money, Status, and the Pursuit of Abundance
American psychiatrist David Krueger (2009) posits that our relationship with money is deeply ingrained, beginning before birth with the quality of maternal nutrition and medical care.
As American writer Geneen Roth (2011) suggests that money can evoke primal responses, akin to those of a hungry animal.
Scarcity, the constant lack of resources, is inextricably linked to money (Mullainathan & Shafir, 2013).
The Mega-Rich and Their Realm
"Of all classes, the rich are the most visible and the most unexplored," observed Harvard economist John Kenneth Galbraith in his 1977 publication (Galbraith, 1977).
The super-rich have established a virtual realm defined by their lifestyle, encompassing global hubs such as Manhattan, select areas of London, Hong Kong, Monaco, St. Tropez, St. Barts, and Ibiza, along with lesser-known locales in New Zealand, the United States, Spain, and Singapore (Beaverstock et al., 2004).
Within their virtual realm, the super-rich favor ownership of opulent residences, prestigious vehicles, private aircraft, and yachts, complemented by stays in premier hotels, dining in exclusive restaurants, attendance at elite clubs, vacations in ultra-luxury resorts, and the acquisition of fine art (Hay, 2013).
Robert Frank termed this realm "Richistan," populated exclusively by millionaires who amassed their fortunes within the past two decades (Frank, 2007).
Veblen, in "The Theory of the Leisure Class" (Veblen, 1899), aptly describes the characteristics of life within this virtual realm and its inhabitants.
Money and Power Dynamics
Sociologist and social psychologist Cecilia Ridgeway (2019) delineates distinctions among status, wealth, and power.
To Raise the Status: Potlatch and Clubs
Sociologist and former top model Ashley Mears spent several years in this world and described her experience in her book "VIP: Status and Beauty in the Global Party Circuit" (Mears, 2020).
What matters to the promoter is the number of very "quality" women at the party. So they nurture and cherish them, keeping the relationship alive. They are constantly on the lookout for new women who want to have a good time. The promoter has two jobs: to capitalize economically on the value of the women and to give the impression that the whole thing is a friendly party, without any economic background. The promoter's job is to provide the VIP client's table with enough fun-loving, attractive women who will dance, drink, and look admiringly at the client. For this, the club pays the promoter a percentage of the client's account and, by agreement, payment for the dinner of the company of women. Promoters cover models’ food, drinks, travel, and lodging, but provide no direct payment. The promoter provides the client with a beautiful holiday with 5-10 models in a nightclub. And sex with these women is out of the question: if the client wants it, he will have to negotiate with the models himself. Promoters are charming, energetic men, often without education and cultural skills, but they consider themselves elite.
Women are young beauties who can dress, walk, and dance well, at least 180 cm tall and wearing high heels. They should have a malleable character and a positive mood. Intelligence is not very important, as because of the loud music in the club there is not much to talk about. Women get the opportunity to visit the best cities of the world and private resorts for free, traveling by business jets and super yachts, spending time with rich and famous people in the most expensive restaurants and clubs. For this, they convert their beauty and youth into business deals and client status.
Interestingly, models themselves are often taken aback by the presence of multiple other beautiful women. A woman in heels is a supernormal stimulus, and it has a stunning effect on both men and women. And if you're surrounded by five models, it means you have high status. That status spills over to everyone around you. People crane their necks looking at the beauties and at you. They want to understand who you are, why everything in your life is so great, what are you doing?
"Civilians" is the slang term for regular club-goers. They are forced to stand, as they have nowhere to sit. This emphasizes their low status. Many can't be on their feet all night and are forced to leave the club so that it can accommodate the next group of onlookers watching the client's spending spree. The tall beautiful women in heels in the VIP area also keep the "civilians" from forgetting their low status. The club could have kept the outside public out, but then the point of a nightclub would be lost. Even parties on a yacht try to be held in the marina so that passers-by and tourists can hear the music and guess that someone cool is pumping up their status.
Champagne is an unusual incentive that found its strength in pre-revolutionary France as a prestige drink (Guy, 2007). Champagne has convenient characteristics for vanity: the bottle can be shaken and spew a frothy salute, and if champagne spills, it will not ruin clothes, unlike red wine. Expensive vodka and tequila are also suitable for clubs for the same reason. Dousing oneself with champagne is a symbol of profligacy.
Wine in general, and champagne in particular, also has the unique property of price obscurity. We know the price of gin, and we are not impressed when it suddenly starts costing 10 times as much. Champagne can be a limited edition collection, have a special vintage year, and nobody knows how much it should cost.
A typical bottle of Cristal can cost from several thousand to several tens of thousands of dollars. Club bottles are growing in size: from three to 27 liters. The price of champagne increases exponentially because the bigger the bottle, the more noticeable it will become: it will be seen and appreciated (Cousin & Chauvin, 2013). Large bottles help to solve a pressing customer problem: to spend as much money as possible in a limited amount of time.
Champagne is not just brought to the table – it is served theatrically, with fireworks. It is a carefully choreographed and colorful performance that immediately attracts the attention of everyone present.
What Goes On
Everyone who has been to such parties describes what happens as an evolving holiday. It may start with a lavish dinner in the best restaurant, with the most beautiful people on the planet, and then continue in a club (of course, they go there without queuing, past a crowd of jealous "civilians"). The manager or owner of the club may send a drink or bottle as a gift, the purpose of which is to encourage the client to start acting fancy. Literally everything, down to the smallest detail, is thought out so that the client spends as much money as possible. For example, the VIP tables are higher than the others – it is as much a detail to raise status as a Louboutin heel.
Light music synchronizes the movements of the visitors, loosening the sense of control. People shout and dance on the tables, laugh and flirt, touch each other and take selfies. All of this creates a sense of transcendence in a closed, exclusive world of a select few (Benzecry & Collins 2014). Collective ecstasy is a unique thing, difficult to explain with science. The energy and emotion is felt by anyone who allows themselves to relax. And relaxation is helped by money, beauty, and alcohol in abundance. This feeling is similar to falling in love or taking drugs. Claudio Benzecry, a professor of sociology at Northwestern University in Evanston, a suburb of Chicago, described similar states in his book "Opera Fanatics." Opera fans speak of both falling in love and losing their identity in a crowd of similar fans (Benzecry, 2011).
This is nothing new – previously around the world, many tribes would regularly, but not often, gather for a common festival where, over the course of several days, they would experience unusual sensations that they could not otherwise receive in normal life. They:
● were among many people, whereas they were used to living in a small group;
● met with strangers, including for romantic purposes;
● didn't do chores, they had fun;
● were immersed in collective actions – dances, songs, games.
What Each Thinks of the Others
A club uses a promoter to sell champagne at outrageous prices. The client uses the club as an opportunity to pump up status. The promoter uses the women to get money from the club, and the women use the clients for free fun partying in the best restaurants and clubs.
Long-term relationships with these women are rare. Clients who prefer models outside the club think they are smarmy dullards with whom there is nothing to talk about.
Promoters refer to their clients as friends or even best friends. The illusion of friendship leads the promoter to believe that if he has brought models to the table, he is entitled to a commission from the deal made at that table. The rich client is not obliged to pay it in physical form, but the amount of such favors virtually accumulates, and the client must sooner or later pay for all the good things he has received thanks to the promoter. But all this happens only in the mind of the promoter.
Promoters observe clients from as close as possible, and high status "spills over" to them. They see amazing potential in their position and believe they will soon capitalize their connections and enter the world of the rich. They feel that all they have to do is connect all the dots into a line that will take them to the next level.
Customers do not consider promoters as their friends. This relationship is asymmetrical. It is interesting for the client to have fun without entering into a long-term relationship with anyone. For the client, a party model provider is no different from a chauffeur, flight attendant, or masseuse. Promoters feel this and want to be called not "promoters" but "event organizers" and "music personalities."
Status Game
In an interview, Ashley Mears (Mears, 2020), a never-worked heir to a wealthy European family, criticizes the nouveau riche who gave away $20,000 bottles of Cristal at a club.
The Economics of the Status Machine
The primacy of money in clubbing (and similar events) is hidden to the maximum. Everything is organized as if it were a spontaneous party of friends. Promoters demonstrate that exploitation works best when accompanied by fun and good humor. The same economic model of using friends is used by multi-level marketing companies like Mary Kay, Herbalife, and others.
In order to be able to explain to oneself what so much money is spent on, one imagines a trendy VIP club as part of an "experience economy" in which the consumption of goods and services is more important than the possession of them. In this economy, having a party or traveling is more important and prestigious than having material goods. The memory of spending a huge amount of money is what the consumer gets. Crazy spending is perceived as a unique experience.
You can also imagine that spending at the club is a representation expense. After all, you can meet potential partners there. Indeed, parties can help you make the right connections and get jobs. As one Italian entrepreneur put it, "I've never met a billionaire at Starbucks. I never met someone who could change my life at Starbucks" (Mears, 2020).
About the Women
Women's beauty is a capital that can be used to pay for social mobility and lifts. But the possibilities of spending this capital are very limited both by the contingent and physical limits of time and place. There is no equality from the start. A champagne fountain at $30,000 a bottle is a manifesto of class society. Cross-class marriages are rare, more like the exception. But a beautiful woman has a chance when a man can go for such a thing, because beauty and youth are precious.
When a man has sex with more women, he raises his status, and when a woman does the same, her status is lowered. On college campuses, female students are aware of the boundaries that separate the "good girls" from the "sluts." It may seem that this division is based on sexual behavior, but research shows that this division is class-based. Women from poor families belong to the "slut" group by default because they lack certain clothing and shoes, style, and manners. Ironically, women from wealthy families have sex far more often and could be labeled 'sluts' (Armstrong et al. 2014).
If you look at traditional potlatch strictly rationally, it certainly seems ridiculous. But it could not have existed for so long if it had no meaning. In a potlatch, the participants know each other, they have a history of relationships, and they will meet again in the future. During the ceremony, they get a sense of who is behaving how. There are links between the status gained at the potlatch and the respect of the tribesmen. However, what is the purpose of this behavior in a nightclub? A man spends hundreds of thousands of dollars a night to show complete strangers what a big spender he is? For whom is this being done? Maybe there is an illusion that the news about you will spread among others, and you will be talked about in high-status circles: "Who was that guy who was partying in the club last night?".
Hidden consumption or anonymous donations and gifts do nothing to realize one's wealth and enhance one's status. Inner beauty is of no interest to anyone in status games. As one model cynically pointed out, "Inner beauty is when you eat make-up" (Mears, 2020).
With untold wealth, is it ethical to live by pretending to be modest and unassuming? One may not show off expensive watches and cars, but have the best health insurance in the world, the best quality food, a spacious house in a safe and clean place. But why should you wrinkle your nose in disdain when someone spends $100,000 a night at a club, considering him an upstart and immoral nouveau riche? Who says it's better to give that money to a charity?
Again, like a mantra we repeat: we don't know the reasons for our behavior, including demonstrative consumption. We don't know why we spend huge sums of money impressing people we see for the first and last time, whom we probably despise, and on whom, most likely, nothing in our lives depends.
Status is like sex, that desire is insatiable. We will never say, "Oh, I had great sex, what more could I want? I think I'm done with it."
How Do You Raise Your Status?
But as research shows, the nature of status and its dynamics are still largely a mystery, as, indeed, is almost everything about human beings (Ridgeway, 2019).
Three Ways to Achieve Status
Will Storr (Storr, 2021) identifies three primary methods through which individuals attain elevated status: dominance, success, and virtue, though it's common for people to employ a combination of two or all three.
Stages of Status Development
Psychologists Donna Rockwell and David Giles conducted interviews with prominent individuals, including film actors, musicians, a state governor, and athletes from professional basketball and hockey leagues (Rockwell & Giles, 2009).
A Few Rules of Thumb for Dealing with Status
The pizza chain Domino's Pizza spent over $50 million in 2021-22 on commercials about how they gave $100,000 to charity (Camp, 2022).
What Is Popularity?
Richard Ryan and Tim Kasser, in a study of people from many countries, found a link: status seeking leads to dissatisfaction, anxiety, depression, and ultimately less success in life (Kasser & Ryan, 1996).
In one study, children were asked to imagine themselves in the shoes of a child who had been bullied (Lemerise et al., 2006).
Another study actually recommends putting on 'rose-coloured glasses' in response to status play to explain the provocateur's behavior in some positive way (Nelson & Crick, 1999).
"It's often a good idea to put into practice the beliefs of the people around you. They're not dead. If you do what they do: eat what they eat, avoid dark places like they do, you can avoid being dead too" (Stewart-Williams, 2018).
In one study, psychologist Mitch Prinstein and colleagues (Prinstein, 2017) found that those who were popular as children were more likely to be happily married, with good jobs, social success, and good health. This is capital that pays dividends throughout life.
Achieving the most pleasurable form of popularity comes from making an effort to fit in rather than trying to stand out, and doing our best to achieve harmony rather than focusing on how to dominate others" (Prinstein, 2017).
As the American satirist Bill Maher said in one of his Real Time programmes (Maher, 2022).
David Foster Wallace’s quote: https://www.goodreads.com/quotes/7113791-you-ll-stop-worrying-what-others-think-about-you-when-you
What, Precisely, is Status?
Will Storr, in his best-selling book The Status Game, argues, based on extensive research, that we are perpetually engaged in this pursuit (Storr, 2021).
Therefore, status is a joint product of dominance and prestige (Cheng & Tracy, 2014).
Status Provides Access to the Finest Aspects of Life.
A study encompassing 186 'primitive' tribes worldwide, from the Mbuti Pygmies in Africa to the Aleutians of Alaska, revealed that high-status men possess greater wealth and multiple wives, and they provide superior nutrition for their children (Buss, 2019).
This pattern is observed across all non-industrialized societies (von Rueden & Jaeggi, 2016) and remains relevant in contemporary 'equal opportunity democracies.'
Some researchers propose that our emotions—pride, shame, envy, and others—are specifically designed for status-related endeavors (Durkee, 2021).
Mitch Prinstein, a psychology professor and popularity researcher, demonstrates that status profoundly influences the nature, course, and duration of life. It affects health, family relationships, finances, career success, the likelihood of alcoholism, and children's academic performance (Prinstein, 2017).
This explains the intense and emotional struggle for status, as the achievement of high status is accompanied and reinforced by all available rewards (Storr, 2021).
George Gier's advertising texts for Porsche: "It's almost as fast as you can go, but without the airplane food" or: "Small penis? We have a car for you" (Dye, 2022).
The Historical Evolution of Status.
In 1975, 38% of survey respondents indicated that a good life should include a lot of money. By 1996, this figure had risen to 63% (Putnam, 2000).
The Pursuit of Status: Its Role in Science and Art
In the 18th century, as art transitioned from utilitarian function to a separate entity from craftsmanship, it became a status marker in Western European culture (Shiner 2001).
As digital computers emerged, women were pioneers in software development (Thompson, 2019).
Status is a Social Construct
To illustrate this, consider a thought experiment proposed by Professor William Irvine (Irvine, 2007).
A study published in Nature (Oh, Shafir, & Todorov, 2020) revealed that participants consistently perceived individuals in expensive clothing as more competent and of higher status.
Status Objects
As sports historian Bert Sugar once observed, "Owning horses is the only currency that separates the truly rich from everyone else" (Sugar, 2003).
The Theory of Expensive Signals
A study (Han, Nunes, & Drèze, 2010) identified two distinct groups among the wealthy: "parvenus," who recently acquired status and seek to distance themselves from their past, signaling to those of lower status; and "patricians," who prioritize signaling among their peers.
The act of placing advertisements in prestigious venues, utilizing high-end advertising agencies, signals the corporation's financial health to investors, competitors, and potential employees (Miller, 2009).
It is theorized that the decline of dueling stemmed from its accessibility to commoners, diminishing its status as a noble practice (Appiah, 2011).
Demonstrative Consumption: The Birkin Bag
Thorstein Veblen, an American economist, sociologist, and futurologist, introduced the concept of "conspicuous consumption" as early as 1899 (Veblen, 1973).
The bag's origin, a conversation between Jane Birkin and Hermès CEO Jean-Louis Dumas in 1983, contributes to its mystique (Unger, 2016).
A 2016 study found that Birkin bags have outperformed the S&P 500 by 12% and gold by 2% over 30 years (Phan, 2021), further solidifying its status as a valuable asset.
Demonstrative Consumption: Weddings
Throughout history, the most expensive lifetime demonstrative costs have been weddings and funerals (Graeber, 2011).
Biological Markers of Status
In an experiment (Acikalin et al., 2018), Bengal macaques preferred brand logos associated with images of high-status macaques, demonstrating the prioritization of status information.
Historically, scurvy plagued seafarers, causing widespread illness and death. In 1769, Captain Cook, aware of sauerkraut's efficacy, faced resistance from his crew, who were reluctant to consume such common fare (Storr, 2021).
This detachment can lead to compromised relationships, which are crucial for human well-being (MacLellan, 2016).
The medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) plays a key role in processing status information (Padilla-Coreano et al., 2022).
In the macaque experiment (Acikalin et al., 2018), brand preferences were significantly higher when associated with sexual stimuli than with status cues.
The Influence of High Status: Celebrities and Public Perception
Gwyneth Paltrow's website features unconventional products, such as a scented candle marketed as "This Smells Like My Vagina" for just $75 (Trott, 2021).
Speech Patterns and Status
James Pennebaker's research on language and status reveals that pronoun usage can indicate social standing (Pennebaker, 2011).
Sociological studies show that people will make knowingly false statements if other high-ranking "participants" in the experiment (actually actors) say so first (Storr, 2021).
Consequences of Low Status: Physiological and Social Impacts
Similarly, research on baboons demonstrated that status, rather than genetics, significantly influenced cardiovascular health (Marmot, 2007).
Psychologists George Slavich and Steve Cole from the University of California, Los Angeles, investigated what happens to our bodies in situations of ostracism - when we are rejected even by a stranger, let alone a loved one, when we are not invited to a party (Slavich & Cole, 2013).
When social rejection was artificially created in the laboratory, people started eating more sweets, i.e. taste perception was altered (Baumeister et al., 2005).
In Japan, declining sexual activity and social withdrawal are linked to socioeconomic factors, highlighting the impact of status on personal relationships (Ghaznavi et al., 2019).
Humiliation and Comparative Status
Robert Frank illustrated the human sensitivity to relative status through a simple experiment with children, demonstrating that perceived unfairness elicits strong reactions (Frank, 1985).
Status Elevation Through Humiliation
James Gilligan's research on violence reveals that many violent acts stem from perceived disrespect and a desire to restore status (Gould, 2020).
As Kurt Vonnegut said in Slaughterhouse-Five: “He supposed that the intent of the Gospels was to teach people, among other things, to be merciful, even to the lowest of the low(Vonnegut, 1968).
Compensatory Behaviors in Low-Status Individuals
The facts about The Thaipusam festival are from studies: (Xygalatas et al., 2013; Xygalatas et al., 2021).
The Elusive Nature of Equality
"Idealists tell the story that humanity is striving for equality. But it isn't. Utopians talk about injustice, but they build new hierarchies and place themselves at the top. The lust for status is indestructible. It is the secret purpose of our lives, to choose status for ourselves and our game - and to get as much as we can for ourselves. This is how we create meaning. That's how we create our identity. Equality will always be an unrealisable dream" (Storr, 2021).
It's the worst of us, it's the best of us and it's the inescapable truth of us: for humans, equality will always be the impossible dream” (Storr, 2021).
The Reality of People with Enormous Power
British historian Roy Sydney Porter, in his book A Social History of Madness: Stories of the Insane, stated: "The history of madness is the history of power. Madness imagines power, and it is both impotence and omnipotence. Madness craves power, to keep itself in check. Threatening the normal structures of control, madness conducts an endless dialogue, at times a manic monologue - about power" (Porter, 1987).
Lord David Owen, a former British Foreign Secretary and clinical neurologist and psychiatrist, examined numerous modern world leaders in his book (Owen, 2008).
David Owen further developed this concept by describing and proposing the introduction of "hubris syndrome" into the list of psychiatric diseases (Owen & Davidson, 2009).
Money, Status, and the Pursuit of Abundance
American psychiatrist David Krueger (2009) posits that our relationship with money is deeply ingrained, beginning before birth with the quality of maternal nutrition and medical care.
As American writer Geneen Roth (2011) suggests that money can evoke primal responses, akin to those of a hungry animal.
Scarcity, the constant lack of resources, is inextricably linked to money (Mullainathan & Shafir, 2013).
The Mega-Rich and Their Realm
"Of all classes, the rich are the most visible and the most unexplored," observed Harvard economist John Kenneth Galbraith in his 1977 publication (Galbraith, 1977).
The super-rich have established a virtual realm defined by their lifestyle, encompassing global hubs such as Manhattan, select areas of London, Hong Kong, Monaco, St. Tropez, St. Barts, and Ibiza, along with lesser-known locales in New Zealand, the United States, Spain, and Singapore (Beaverstock et al., 2004).
Within their virtual realm, the super-rich favor ownership of opulent residences, prestigious vehicles, private aircraft, and yachts, complemented by stays in premier hotels, dining in exclusive restaurants, attendance at elite clubs, vacations in ultra-luxury resorts, and the acquisition of fine art (Hay, 2013).
Robert Frank termed this realm "Richistan," populated exclusively by millionaires who amassed their fortunes within the past two decades (Frank, 2007).
Veblen, in "The Theory of the Leisure Class" (Veblen, 1899), aptly describes the characteristics of life within this virtual realm and its inhabitants.
Money and Power Dynamics
Sociologist and social psychologist Cecilia Ridgeway (2019) delineates distinctions among status, wealth, and power.
To Raise the Status: Potlatch and Clubs
Sociologist and former top model Ashley Mears spent several years in this world and described her experience in her book "VIP: Status and Beauty in the Global Party Circuit" (Mears, 2020).
What matters to the promoter is the number of very "quality" women at the party. So they nurture and cherish them, keeping the relationship alive. They are constantly on the lookout for new women who want to have a good time. The promoter has two jobs: to capitalize economically on the value of the women and to give the impression that the whole thing is a friendly party, without any economic background. The promoter's job is to provide the VIP client's table with enough fun-loving, attractive women who will dance, drink, and look admiringly at the client. For this, the club pays the promoter a percentage of the client's account and, by agreement, payment for the dinner of the company of women. Promoters cover models’ food, drinks, travel, and lodging, but provide no direct payment. The promoter provides the client with a beautiful holiday with 5-10 models in a nightclub. And sex with these women is out of the question: if the client wants it, he will have to negotiate with the models himself. Promoters are charming, energetic men, often without education and cultural skills, but they consider themselves elite.
Women are young beauties who can dress, walk, and dance well, at least 180 cm tall and wearing high heels. They should have a malleable character and a positive mood. Intelligence is not very important, as because of the loud music in the club there is not much to talk about. Women get the opportunity to visit the best cities of the world and private resorts for free, traveling by business jets and super yachts, spending time with rich and famous people in the most expensive restaurants and clubs. For this, they convert their beauty and youth into business deals and client status.
Interestingly, models themselves are often taken aback by the presence of multiple other beautiful women. A woman in heels is a supernormal stimulus, and it has a stunning effect on both men and women. And if you're surrounded by five models, it means you have high status. That status spills over to everyone around you. People crane their necks looking at the beauties and at you. They want to understand who you are, why everything in your life is so great, what are you doing?
"Civilians" is the slang term for regular club-goers. They are forced to stand, as they have nowhere to sit. This emphasizes their low status. Many can't be on their feet all night and are forced to leave the club so that it can accommodate the next group of onlookers watching the client's spending spree. The tall beautiful women in heels in the VIP area also keep the "civilians" from forgetting their low status. The club could have kept the outside public out, but then the point of a nightclub would be lost. Even parties on a yacht try to be held in the marina so that passers-by and tourists can hear the music and guess that someone cool is pumping up their status.
Champagne is an unusual incentive that found its strength in pre-revolutionary France as a prestige drink (Guy, 2007). Champagne has convenient characteristics for vanity: the bottle can be shaken and spew a frothy salute, and if champagne spills, it will not ruin clothes, unlike red wine. Expensive vodka and tequila are also suitable for clubs for the same reason. Dousing oneself with champagne is a symbol of profligacy.
Wine in general, and champagne in particular, also has the unique property of price obscurity. We know the price of gin, and we are not impressed when it suddenly starts costing 10 times as much. Champagne can be a limited edition collection, have a special vintage year, and nobody knows how much it should cost.
A typical bottle of Cristal can cost from several thousand to several tens of thousands of dollars. Club bottles are growing in size: from three to 27 liters. The price of champagne increases exponentially because the bigger the bottle, the more noticeable it will become: it will be seen and appreciated (Cousin & Chauvin, 2013). Large bottles help to solve a pressing customer problem: to spend as much money as possible in a limited amount of time.
Champagne is not just brought to the table – it is served theatrically, with fireworks. It is a carefully choreographed and colorful performance that immediately attracts the attention of everyone present.
What Goes On
Everyone who has been to such parties describes what happens as an evolving holiday. It may start with a lavish dinner in the best restaurant, with the most beautiful people on the planet, and then continue in a club (of course, they go there without queuing, past a crowd of jealous "civilians"). The manager or owner of the club may send a drink or bottle as a gift, the purpose of which is to encourage the client to start acting fancy. Literally everything, down to the smallest detail, is thought out so that the client spends as much money as possible. For example, the VIP tables are higher than the others – it is as much a detail to raise status as a Louboutin heel.
Light music synchronizes the movements of the visitors, loosening the sense of control. People shout and dance on the tables, laugh and flirt, touch each other and take selfies. All of this creates a sense of transcendence in a closed, exclusive world of a select few (Benzecry & Collins 2014). Collective ecstasy is a unique thing, difficult to explain with science. The energy and emotion is felt by anyone who allows themselves to relax. And relaxation is helped by money, beauty, and alcohol in abundance. This feeling is similar to falling in love or taking drugs. Claudio Benzecry, a professor of sociology at Northwestern University in Evanston, a suburb of Chicago, described similar states in his book "Opera Fanatics." Opera fans speak of both falling in love and losing their identity in a crowd of similar fans (Benzecry, 2011).
This is nothing new – previously around the world, many tribes would regularly, but not often, gather for a common festival where, over the course of several days, they would experience unusual sensations that they could not otherwise receive in normal life. They:
● were among many people, whereas they were used to living in a small group;
● met with strangers, including for romantic purposes;
● didn't do chores, they had fun;
● were immersed in collective actions – dances, songs, games.
What Each Thinks of the Others
A club uses a promoter to sell champagne at outrageous prices. The client uses the club as an opportunity to pump up status. The promoter uses the women to get money from the club, and the women use the clients for free fun partying in the best restaurants and clubs.
Long-term relationships with these women are rare. Clients who prefer models outside the club think they are smarmy dullards with whom there is nothing to talk about.
Promoters refer to their clients as friends or even best friends. The illusion of friendship leads the promoter to believe that if he has brought models to the table, he is entitled to a commission from the deal made at that table. The rich client is not obliged to pay it in physical form, but the amount of such favors virtually accumulates, and the client must sooner or later pay for all the good things he has received thanks to the promoter. But all this happens only in the mind of the promoter.
Promoters observe clients from as close as possible, and high status "spills over" to them. They see amazing potential in their position and believe they will soon capitalize their connections and enter the world of the rich. They feel that all they have to do is connect all the dots into a line that will take them to the next level.
Customers do not consider promoters as their friends. This relationship is asymmetrical. It is interesting for the client to have fun without entering into a long-term relationship with anyone. For the client, a party model provider is no different from a chauffeur, flight attendant, or masseuse. Promoters feel this and want to be called not "promoters" but "event organizers" and "music personalities."
Status Game
In an interview, Ashley Mears (Mears, 2020), a never-worked heir to a wealthy European family, criticizes the nouveau riche who gave away $20,000 bottles of Cristal at a club.
The Economics of the Status Machine
The primacy of money in clubbing (and similar events) is hidden to the maximum. Everything is organized as if it were a spontaneous party of friends. Promoters demonstrate that exploitation works best when accompanied by fun and good humor. The same economic model of using friends is used by multi-level marketing companies like Mary Kay, Herbalife, and others.
In order to be able to explain to oneself what so much money is spent on, one imagines a trendy VIP club as part of an "experience economy" in which the consumption of goods and services is more important than the possession of them. In this economy, having a party or traveling is more important and prestigious than having material goods. The memory of spending a huge amount of money is what the consumer gets. Crazy spending is perceived as a unique experience.
You can also imagine that spending at the club is a representation expense. After all, you can meet potential partners there. Indeed, parties can help you make the right connections and get jobs. As one Italian entrepreneur put it, "I've never met a billionaire at Starbucks. I never met someone who could change my life at Starbucks" (Mears, 2020).
About the Women
Women's beauty is a capital that can be used to pay for social mobility and lifts. But the possibilities of spending this capital are very limited both by the contingent and physical limits of time and place. There is no equality from the start. A champagne fountain at $30,000 a bottle is a manifesto of class society. Cross-class marriages are rare, more like the exception. But a beautiful woman has a chance when a man can go for such a thing, because beauty and youth are precious.
When a man has sex with more women, he raises his status, and when a woman does the same, her status is lowered. On college campuses, female students are aware of the boundaries that separate the "good girls" from the "sluts." It may seem that this division is based on sexual behavior, but research shows that this division is class-based. Women from poor families belong to the "slut" group by default because they lack certain clothing and shoes, style, and manners. Ironically, women from wealthy families have sex far more often and could be labeled 'sluts' (Armstrong et al. 2014).
If you look at traditional potlatch strictly rationally, it certainly seems ridiculous. But it could not have existed for so long if it had no meaning. In a potlatch, the participants know each other, they have a history of relationships, and they will meet again in the future. During the ceremony, they get a sense of who is behaving how. There are links between the status gained at the potlatch and the respect of the tribesmen. However, what is the purpose of this behavior in a nightclub? A man spends hundreds of thousands of dollars a night to show complete strangers what a big spender he is? For whom is this being done? Maybe there is an illusion that the news about you will spread among others, and you will be talked about in high-status circles: "Who was that guy who was partying in the club last night?".
Hidden consumption or anonymous donations and gifts do nothing to realize one's wealth and enhance one's status. Inner beauty is of no interest to anyone in status games. As one model cynically pointed out, "Inner beauty is when you eat make-up" (Mears, 2020).
With untold wealth, is it ethical to live by pretending to be modest and unassuming? One may not show off expensive watches and cars, but have the best health insurance in the world, the best quality food, a spacious house in a safe and clean place. But why should you wrinkle your nose in disdain when someone spends $100,000 a night at a club, considering him an upstart and immoral nouveau riche? Who says it's better to give that money to a charity?
Again, like a mantra we repeat: we don't know the reasons for our behavior, including demonstrative consumption. We don't know why we spend huge sums of money impressing people we see for the first and last time, whom we probably despise, and on whom, most likely, nothing in our lives depends.
Status is like sex, that desire is insatiable. We will never say, "Oh, I had great sex, what more could I want? I think I'm done with it."
How Do You Raise Your Status?
But as research shows, the nature of status and its dynamics are still largely a mystery, as, indeed, is almost everything about human beings (Ridgeway, 2019).
Three Ways to Achieve Status
Will Storr (Storr, 2021) identifies three primary methods through which individuals attain elevated status: dominance, success, and virtue, though it's common for people to employ a combination of two or all three.
Stages of Status Development
Psychologists Donna Rockwell and David Giles conducted interviews with prominent individuals, including film actors, musicians, a state governor, and athletes from professional basketball and hockey leagues (Rockwell & Giles, 2009).
A Few Rules of Thumb for Dealing with Status
The pizza chain Domino's Pizza spent over $50 million in 2021-22 on commercials about how they gave $100,000 to charity (Camp, 2022).
What Is Popularity?
Richard Ryan and Tim Kasser, in a study of people from many countries, found a link: status seeking leads to dissatisfaction, anxiety, depression, and ultimately less success in life (Kasser & Ryan, 1996).
In one study, children were asked to imagine themselves in the shoes of a child who had been bullied (Lemerise et al., 2006).
Another study actually recommends putting on 'rose-coloured glasses' in response to status play to explain the provocateur's behavior in some positive way (Nelson & Crick, 1999).
"It's often a good idea to put into practice the beliefs of the people around you. They're not dead. If you do what they do: eat what they eat, avoid dark places like they do, you can avoid being dead too" (Stewart-Williams, 2018).
In one study, psychologist Mitch Prinstein and colleagues (Prinstein, 2017) found that those who were popular as children were more likely to be happily married, with good jobs, social success, and good health. This is capital that pays dividends throughout life.
Achieving the most pleasurable form of popularity comes from making an effort to fit in rather than trying to stand out, and doing our best to achieve harmony rather than focusing on how to dominate others" (Prinstein, 2017).
As the American satirist Bill Maher said in one of his Real Time programmes (Maher, 2022).
18. Meaning
Nobel Prize-winning American physicist Steven Weinberg once stated: "The more we learn about the universe, the more we learn that it is meaningless" (Falk, 2021).
Astrophysicist Kathy Mack concurs with Weinberg, asserting that our lives are a journey in which we must forge our own meaning (Falk, 2021). This, at least, sounds more optimistic.
Neuroscientist Lisa Feldman Barrett posits that the brain's function is to regulate bodily systems. Another neuroscientist, Daniel Wolpert, argues that the brain's purpose is to govern movement (Wolpert, 2011).
As George Orwell stated, "The essence of being human is that one does not seek perfection" (Orwell, 1969).
A positive response to the simple question, "Do you have meaning in life?" predicts a longer lifespan compared to those who respond negatively (Boyle et al., 2010).
A group of scientists endeavored to identify the optimal phrasing to increase the frequency of hand washing among hospital staff (Grant & Hofmann, 2011).
Paul Bloom, a professor of psychology at the University of Toronto, argues in his book Sweet Spot that many meanings are diminished without the presence of pain and hardship (Bloom, 2021).
Harvard psychologists Kurt Gray and Daniel Wagner analyzed a large dataset compiled by an American insurance company (Bering, 2012).
In an experiment, psychologists presented participants with the following scenario (Gray & Wegner, 2010).
The German philosopher Edmund Husserl, the founder of phenomenology, advocated for disregarding the question of whether an object exists in reality (Madsbjerg, 2017).
Meaning and Happiness
"Artificial intelligence not only processed the data faster than a human could; AI discovered aspects of reality that we were unaware of and probably could not perceive" (Kissinger et al., 2021).
The game of Go has existed for between 2,000 and 4,000 years, according to various sources, and throughout this time, humans have not conceived of the moves demonstrated by the program (Kissinger et al., 2021).
Three years later, in 2019, Lee Sedol retired from professional Go, presumably due to frustration, disillusionment, and a sense of lost meaning (Pranam, 2019).
As the American engineer Emerson Pugh observed: "If the human brain were so simple that we could understand it, we would be so simple that we couldn't": https://www.goodreads.com/quotes/123391-if-the-human-brain-were-so-simple-that-we-could
Pleasure Machine
In 1974, American philosopher Robert Nozick proposed a curious thought experiment, the "pleasure machine," which has since undergone many modifications (Nozick, 1974).
Would you prefer to be attached to this machine or to real life, with its pain and joys, anxieties and hopes, the birth of children and the loss of loved ones? (Harris & Gervais, 2020).
"I know this steak isn't real…” (The Matrix Transcript).
Actually, not so short. Jonathan Rauch, a writer and researcher at the Brookings Institution, demonstrates a U-shaped happiness curve in his book Happiness Curve, suggesting people are happier after 50 (Rauch, 2018).
"Each year, gradually but tangibly…" (Rauch, 2018).
Happiness is a Story
Story about anagrams: (Brown, 2016).
Derren Brown, a showman, magician and writer, has featured several people in one of his television shows: (Brown, 2016).
On the Road to Happiness
The main conclusion from the work of psychology professor Sonja Lyubomirsky, who specializes in the topic of happiness, is that we need to stop waiting for happiness or fearing the onset of unhappiness (Lyubomirsky, 2014).
Laurie Santos, Professor of Psychology and Cognitive Sciences, also deals with happiness; she is the author of the most popular course at Yale University and one of the most popular courses on the coursera.org platform. The course is called The Science of Well-being(Santos, 2005).
We Choose Reality and Then We Live in It
"In an ideal world, desire leads to attempts to obtain the object of desire, and leads to getting, and getting leads to enjoying," write psychologists Daniel Gilbert and Timothy Wilson (Irvine, 2006).
It turned out that the ability to imagine the future depends on the activity of the hippocampus, a brain structure that controls memory processes (Lebreton et al., 2013).
Timothy Miller, a clinical psychologist in California, has observed that all religions teach their followers to value and desire only what they already have (Miller, 1995).
Rabbi Schachtel made a similar point, and many have heard this phrase: "Happiness is not having what you want, but wanting what you have" (Schachtel, 1954).
Two American psychologists, Jeff Larsen and Amy McKibban (Larsen & McKibban, 2008), decided to test this experimentally.
Nobel Prize-winning American physicist Steven Weinberg once stated: "The more we learn about the universe, the more we learn that it is meaningless" (Falk, 2021).
Astrophysicist Kathy Mack concurs with Weinberg, asserting that our lives are a journey in which we must forge our own meaning (Falk, 2021). This, at least, sounds more optimistic.
Neuroscientist Lisa Feldman Barrett posits that the brain's function is to regulate bodily systems. Another neuroscientist, Daniel Wolpert, argues that the brain's purpose is to govern movement (Wolpert, 2011).
As George Orwell stated, "The essence of being human is that one does not seek perfection" (Orwell, 1969).
A positive response to the simple question, "Do you have meaning in life?" predicts a longer lifespan compared to those who respond negatively (Boyle et al., 2010).
A group of scientists endeavored to identify the optimal phrasing to increase the frequency of hand washing among hospital staff (Grant & Hofmann, 2011).
Paul Bloom, a professor of psychology at the University of Toronto, argues in his book Sweet Spot that many meanings are diminished without the presence of pain and hardship (Bloom, 2021).
Harvard psychologists Kurt Gray and Daniel Wagner analyzed a large dataset compiled by an American insurance company (Bering, 2012).
In an experiment, psychologists presented participants with the following scenario (Gray & Wegner, 2010).
The German philosopher Edmund Husserl, the founder of phenomenology, advocated for disregarding the question of whether an object exists in reality (Madsbjerg, 2017).
Meaning and Happiness
"Artificial intelligence not only processed the data faster than a human could; AI discovered aspects of reality that we were unaware of and probably could not perceive" (Kissinger et al., 2021).
The game of Go has existed for between 2,000 and 4,000 years, according to various sources, and throughout this time, humans have not conceived of the moves demonstrated by the program (Kissinger et al., 2021).
Three years later, in 2019, Lee Sedol retired from professional Go, presumably due to frustration, disillusionment, and a sense of lost meaning (Pranam, 2019).
As the American engineer Emerson Pugh observed: "If the human brain were so simple that we could understand it, we would be so simple that we couldn't": https://www.goodreads.com/quotes/123391-if-the-human-brain-were-so-simple-that-we-could
Pleasure Machine
In 1974, American philosopher Robert Nozick proposed a curious thought experiment, the "pleasure machine," which has since undergone many modifications (Nozick, 1974).
Would you prefer to be attached to this machine or to real life, with its pain and joys, anxieties and hopes, the birth of children and the loss of loved ones? (Harris & Gervais, 2020).
"I know this steak isn't real…” (The Matrix Transcript).
Actually, not so short. Jonathan Rauch, a writer and researcher at the Brookings Institution, demonstrates a U-shaped happiness curve in his book Happiness Curve, suggesting people are happier after 50 (Rauch, 2018).
"Each year, gradually but tangibly…" (Rauch, 2018).
Happiness is a Story
Story about anagrams: (Brown, 2016).
Derren Brown, a showman, magician and writer, has featured several people in one of his television shows: (Brown, 2016).
On the Road to Happiness
The main conclusion from the work of psychology professor Sonja Lyubomirsky, who specializes in the topic of happiness, is that we need to stop waiting for happiness or fearing the onset of unhappiness (Lyubomirsky, 2014).
Laurie Santos, Professor of Psychology and Cognitive Sciences, also deals with happiness; she is the author of the most popular course at Yale University and one of the most popular courses on the coursera.org platform. The course is called The Science of Well-being(Santos, 2005).
We Choose Reality and Then We Live in It
"In an ideal world, desire leads to attempts to obtain the object of desire, and leads to getting, and getting leads to enjoying," write psychologists Daniel Gilbert and Timothy Wilson (Irvine, 2006).
It turned out that the ability to imagine the future depends on the activity of the hippocampus, a brain structure that controls memory processes (Lebreton et al., 2013).
Timothy Miller, a clinical psychologist in California, has observed that all religions teach their followers to value and desire only what they already have (Miller, 1995).
Rabbi Schachtel made a similar point, and many have heard this phrase: "Happiness is not having what you want, but wanting what you have" (Schachtel, 1954).
Two American psychologists, Jeff Larsen and Amy McKibban (Larsen & McKibban, 2008), decided to test this experimentally.
19. Words and reality
Lewis Mumford’s quote: https://www.brainyquote.com/quotes/lewis_mumford_124579
Scotto Moore's fantasy novel Battle of the Linguist Mages (Moore, S. A., 2021) describes present-day Los Angeles, where a group led by the governor of California is developing the art of battle linguistics, beginning the construction of a totalitarian empire.
Such morphemes bypass the critical control of consciousness to evoke certain feelings, beliefs and behaviors in the listener (Adee, 2021).
Robert Cialdini, psychologist and persuasion guru, once helped the British government improve the collection of unpaid taxes from 57% to 87%. He had one sentence added to a letter to debtors, "Most people pay their taxes on time" (Cialdini, 2016).
And we all know, "Veni, vidi, vici" is a tricolon. "Sex, drugs and rock and roll," "Eat, Drink, Pray," "Liberty, Equality, Fraternity," "Kinder, Küche, Kirche" (Forsyth, 2014).
This is called ablaut reduplication, and we follow this rule, even though we don't know it, because it is in this sequence of vowels that words sound harmonious and beautiful. It is one of the rhetorical devices of the almost forgotten art of persuading people with one's speech (Forsyth, 2014).
The Words We Use
Sarah Pressman from the University of Kansas and Sheldon Cohen (Pressman & Cohen, 2012) from Carnegie Mellon University analyzed 88 autobiographies of psychologists and found that the words an author uses can predict their life expectancy.
In another study, the same psychologists (Pressman & Cohen, 2007) searched biographies for other so-called "social" words. These words are: we, they, uncle, aunt, friend, brother, sister, colleague, neighbor, family, etc.
The Nun Study
The Nun Study began in 1986, to examine the onset of Alzheimer's disease. The study wasiniti\ted by David Snowdon at the University of Minnesota.
Researchers measured the use of words associated with positive, negative, or neutral emotions (Danner et al., 2001).
They also measured what is known as idea density (Snowdon et al., 1996).
Walter Kintsch, an American professor of psychology at the University of Colorado at Boulder, introduced the concept of idea density as a measure of text complexity back in 1974: how many ideas are contained in a sentence (Kintsch, 1974).
Example (Covington, 2009) from a speech by Alan Greenspan, with a density of 6.0:
A later analysis confirmed that idea density was significantly higher in people without cognitive impairment than in those with impairment. It is striking that measurements of specific intellectual ability taken in one's twenties can be a predictor of cognitive health 60 years later (Iacono et al., 2009).
Idea density has also been found to fall in other brain disorders, such as schizophrenia or ketamine use (Brown et al., 2005).
Exercises for High Density of Ideas
Could the effect of such a regular, though infrequent, practice equate to nearly 10 years of life? (Addis et al., 2009).
Lewis Mumford’s quote: https://www.brainyquote.com/quotes/lewis_mumford_124579
Scotto Moore's fantasy novel Battle of the Linguist Mages (Moore, S. A., 2021) describes present-day Los Angeles, where a group led by the governor of California is developing the art of battle linguistics, beginning the construction of a totalitarian empire.
Such morphemes bypass the critical control of consciousness to evoke certain feelings, beliefs and behaviors in the listener (Adee, 2021).
Robert Cialdini, psychologist and persuasion guru, once helped the British government improve the collection of unpaid taxes from 57% to 87%. He had one sentence added to a letter to debtors, "Most people pay their taxes on time" (Cialdini, 2016).
And we all know, "Veni, vidi, vici" is a tricolon. "Sex, drugs and rock and roll," "Eat, Drink, Pray," "Liberty, Equality, Fraternity," "Kinder, Küche, Kirche" (Forsyth, 2014).
This is called ablaut reduplication, and we follow this rule, even though we don't know it, because it is in this sequence of vowels that words sound harmonious and beautiful. It is one of the rhetorical devices of the almost forgotten art of persuading people with one's speech (Forsyth, 2014).
The Words We Use
Sarah Pressman from the University of Kansas and Sheldon Cohen (Pressman & Cohen, 2012) from Carnegie Mellon University analyzed 88 autobiographies of psychologists and found that the words an author uses can predict their life expectancy.
In another study, the same psychologists (Pressman & Cohen, 2007) searched biographies for other so-called "social" words. These words are: we, they, uncle, aunt, friend, brother, sister, colleague, neighbor, family, etc.
The Nun Study
The Nun Study began in 1986, to examine the onset of Alzheimer's disease. The study wasiniti\ted by David Snowdon at the University of Minnesota.
Researchers measured the use of words associated with positive, negative, or neutral emotions (Danner et al., 2001).
They also measured what is known as idea density (Snowdon et al., 1996).
Walter Kintsch, an American professor of psychology at the University of Colorado at Boulder, introduced the concept of idea density as a measure of text complexity back in 1974: how many ideas are contained in a sentence (Kintsch, 1974).
Example (Covington, 2009) from a speech by Alan Greenspan, with a density of 6.0:
A later analysis confirmed that idea density was significantly higher in people without cognitive impairment than in those with impairment. It is striking that measurements of specific intellectual ability taken in one's twenties can be a predictor of cognitive health 60 years later (Iacono et al., 2009).
Idea density has also been found to fall in other brain disorders, such as schizophrenia or ketamine use (Brown et al., 2005).
Exercises for High Density of Ideas
Could the effect of such a regular, though infrequent, practice equate to nearly 10 years of life? (Addis et al., 2009).
20. The Rules of Personal Reality
Mark Twain’s quote: https://www.goodreads.com/quotes/11253487-twenty-years-from-now-you-will-be-more-disappointed-by
Elizabeth Gilbert’s quote: Gilbert, 2015.
Changing Perceptions of Reality
Paul Davies, professor of physics at Arizona State University, notes that in the nascent moments of the universe, the laws of physics may have undergone transformations due to the extreme temperatures of the Big Bang (Davies, 2021).
For every neural connection from the eyes to the visual cortex, there are approximately ten connections in the opposite direction (Hochstein & Ahissar, 2002; Juan & Walsh, 2003; Ahissar & Hochstein, 2004).
Furthermore, this brain data is subject to kurtosis, a statistical phenomenon indicating a deviation from a normal distribution. This leads to a skewed perception of the world (Lotto, 2017).
Law of Attraction
In 2006, Prime Time Productions released the acclaimed film The Secret, created by Australian author Rhonda Byrne (Heriot, 2006).
Rhonda Byrne reportedly discovered this secret through Wallace Wattles' 1910 book, The Science of Getting Rich (Wattles, 2020).
How This "Law" Works
"Quantum physics explains that everything in the Universe is made of energy vibrating at a certain frequency…" (Byrne, 2022).
Understanding Negation
Negation is a fundamental aspect of language. Our brains readily process negation in speech. Understanding and acting upon this understanding poses no difficulty (Fischler et al., 1983; Singer, 2006; Nieuwland & Kuperberg, 2008).
There's a theory that understanding negation in speech or writing necessitates the brain's inhibitory mechanism (Díaz-Rivera et al., 2023).
Fantasies and Expectations
Research about expectations: (Sevincer et al., 2014).
Creating Meanings and Finding Patterns: Unveiling Order in Complexity
Adam Frank, Professor of Astrophysics at the University of Rochester, USA, posits that we are transitioning from viewing humans as mere collections of carbon atoms to recognizing the central role of meaning and information in our existence (Frank, 2023).
This progression, when plotted, forms an almost perfectly straight line, a phenomenon known as Zipf's Law, named after the American linguist George Kingsley Zipf (Li, 1992).
Looking at Things from Different Perspectives
Tversky and Kahneman demonstrated that people make decisions not based on options themselves, but on how those options are described (Tversky & Kahneman, 1974).
Thinking in Alternatives
Consider the vaccination paradox: (Pearl & Mackenzie, 2018).
Pursue Goals You Don't Know About
The term "subconsciousness" originally referred to a hypnotic trance where subjects were unaware of the causes of their behavior (Goldsmith, 1934).
The unpredictability of the future and the slow pace of genetic evolution necessitated the development of an open system capable of flexible, adaptive behavior, rather than rigid, fixed reflexes (Dawkins, 1976).
Psychologists have demonstrated that unconscious goals and motivations can be instilled in individuals (Bargh et al., 2002).
Our subconscious mind is the primary driver of our behavior, while consciousness serves to rationalize and interpret those behaviors (Wegner, 2002).
Changing the Past
However, researchers discovered that repeated mental rehearsals of these altered scenarios gradually rendered the memories more realistic (Schacter et al., 2015).
Imagining the Future
The most effective method for articulating one's desired future is through the mental contrasting technique (Cross et al, 2016).
Cultivating Enduring Friendships
Violating even one rule can weaken a friendship, and neglecting several can completely destroy it (Dunbar, 2021).
Programming Cognitive Patterns
In 1990, Michael Hewitt-Gleeson, Edward de Bono's partner, published "Software for Your Brain" (Hewitt-Gleeson, 2021), in which he articulated several compelling ideas.
Essentially, a board of directors and cognitive programs serve similar purposes. Psychologists Kenrick and Griskevicius (2017), authors of "The Rational Animal," posit that we are a composite of multiple sub-personalities.
Edward de Bono's Six Hats Method provides a proven technique for employing diverse perspectives in problem analysis (De Bono, 2017).
Time: A Finite Resource
While we acknowledge time's limitations, we often disregard them due to our inability to directly perceive its passage. An observation from an American residing in China suggests that advanced Mandarin proficiency in foreigners correlates inversely with career ambition. Learning Mandarin as an adult represents a substantial investment of time, money, and opportunity. To achieve practical mastery, one must dedicate approximately two years of intensive study, time that could be allocated to other pursuits. Furthermore, progression to fluency becomes increasingly challenging and time-consuming beyond a certain level, often without yielding commensurate career advancements.
How should we allocate our time? This question warrants frequent consideration, as we are managing our most precious resource. The "limitless wealth" thought experiment underscores the paramount importance of time. It reveals that while time is finite, it can be strategically leveraged by delegating tasks to others, thereby freeing us to pursue our passions. For example, by hiring individuals or companies to handle mundane tasks, we can concentrate on activities that align with our personal and professional aspirations. This strategic allocation of time becomes particularly significant when considering the opportunity costs associated with various endeavors. Understanding that time is a non-renewable resource encourages us to make deliberate choices about how we spend it, ensuring that our actions contribute to our long-term goals and values.
The Power of Implicit Learning
In one experiment, young pilots were trained to rapidly interpret aircraft instrument readings using this method (McLean et al., 2011).
Movement
Neuroscientist Bo Lotto believes that detecting contrast changes is a fundamental characteristic of perception (Lotto, 2017).
Mark Twain’s quote: https://www.goodreads.com/quotes/11253487-twenty-years-from-now-you-will-be-more-disappointed-by
Elizabeth Gilbert’s quote: Gilbert, 2015.
Changing Perceptions of Reality
Paul Davies, professor of physics at Arizona State University, notes that in the nascent moments of the universe, the laws of physics may have undergone transformations due to the extreme temperatures of the Big Bang (Davies, 2021).
For every neural connection from the eyes to the visual cortex, there are approximately ten connections in the opposite direction (Hochstein & Ahissar, 2002; Juan & Walsh, 2003; Ahissar & Hochstein, 2004).
Furthermore, this brain data is subject to kurtosis, a statistical phenomenon indicating a deviation from a normal distribution. This leads to a skewed perception of the world (Lotto, 2017).
Law of Attraction
In 2006, Prime Time Productions released the acclaimed film The Secret, created by Australian author Rhonda Byrne (Heriot, 2006).
Rhonda Byrne reportedly discovered this secret through Wallace Wattles' 1910 book, The Science of Getting Rich (Wattles, 2020).
How This "Law" Works
"Quantum physics explains that everything in the Universe is made of energy vibrating at a certain frequency…" (Byrne, 2022).
Understanding Negation
Negation is a fundamental aspect of language. Our brains readily process negation in speech. Understanding and acting upon this understanding poses no difficulty (Fischler et al., 1983; Singer, 2006; Nieuwland & Kuperberg, 2008).
There's a theory that understanding negation in speech or writing necessitates the brain's inhibitory mechanism (Díaz-Rivera et al., 2023).
Fantasies and Expectations
Research about expectations: (Sevincer et al., 2014).
Creating Meanings and Finding Patterns: Unveiling Order in Complexity
Adam Frank, Professor of Astrophysics at the University of Rochester, USA, posits that we are transitioning from viewing humans as mere collections of carbon atoms to recognizing the central role of meaning and information in our existence (Frank, 2023).
This progression, when plotted, forms an almost perfectly straight line, a phenomenon known as Zipf's Law, named after the American linguist George Kingsley Zipf (Li, 1992).
Looking at Things from Different Perspectives
Tversky and Kahneman demonstrated that people make decisions not based on options themselves, but on how those options are described (Tversky & Kahneman, 1974).
Thinking in Alternatives
Consider the vaccination paradox: (Pearl & Mackenzie, 2018).
Pursue Goals You Don't Know About
The term "subconsciousness" originally referred to a hypnotic trance where subjects were unaware of the causes of their behavior (Goldsmith, 1934).
The unpredictability of the future and the slow pace of genetic evolution necessitated the development of an open system capable of flexible, adaptive behavior, rather than rigid, fixed reflexes (Dawkins, 1976).
Psychologists have demonstrated that unconscious goals and motivations can be instilled in individuals (Bargh et al., 2002).
Our subconscious mind is the primary driver of our behavior, while consciousness serves to rationalize and interpret those behaviors (Wegner, 2002).
Changing the Past
However, researchers discovered that repeated mental rehearsals of these altered scenarios gradually rendered the memories more realistic (Schacter et al., 2015).
Imagining the Future
The most effective method for articulating one's desired future is through the mental contrasting technique (Cross et al, 2016).
Cultivating Enduring Friendships
Violating even one rule can weaken a friendship, and neglecting several can completely destroy it (Dunbar, 2021).
Programming Cognitive Patterns
In 1990, Michael Hewitt-Gleeson, Edward de Bono's partner, published "Software for Your Brain" (Hewitt-Gleeson, 2021), in which he articulated several compelling ideas.
Essentially, a board of directors and cognitive programs serve similar purposes. Psychologists Kenrick and Griskevicius (2017), authors of "The Rational Animal," posit that we are a composite of multiple sub-personalities.
Edward de Bono's Six Hats Method provides a proven technique for employing diverse perspectives in problem analysis (De Bono, 2017).
Time: A Finite Resource
While we acknowledge time's limitations, we often disregard them due to our inability to directly perceive its passage. An observation from an American residing in China suggests that advanced Mandarin proficiency in foreigners correlates inversely with career ambition. Learning Mandarin as an adult represents a substantial investment of time, money, and opportunity. To achieve practical mastery, one must dedicate approximately two years of intensive study, time that could be allocated to other pursuits. Furthermore, progression to fluency becomes increasingly challenging and time-consuming beyond a certain level, often without yielding commensurate career advancements.
How should we allocate our time? This question warrants frequent consideration, as we are managing our most precious resource. The "limitless wealth" thought experiment underscores the paramount importance of time. It reveals that while time is finite, it can be strategically leveraged by delegating tasks to others, thereby freeing us to pursue our passions. For example, by hiring individuals or companies to handle mundane tasks, we can concentrate on activities that align with our personal and professional aspirations. This strategic allocation of time becomes particularly significant when considering the opportunity costs associated with various endeavors. Understanding that time is a non-renewable resource encourages us to make deliberate choices about how we spend it, ensuring that our actions contribute to our long-term goals and values.
The Power of Implicit Learning
In one experiment, young pilots were trained to rapidly interpret aircraft instrument readings using this method (McLean et al., 2011).
Movement
Neuroscientist Bo Lotto believes that detecting contrast changes is a fundamental characteristic of perception (Lotto, 2017).
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